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• W2620154414 abstract "Related Article, p. 233The medieval philosopher Moses Maimonides (Spain, 1135-1204) wrote that “No disease that can be treated by diet should be treated with any other means.” Not so long ago, before we had the means of dialysis therapy, and still today in many parts of the world, diet represents the sole management strategy in end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). Related Article, p. 233 Arguably, the most common dietary prescription for people with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a low-protein diet, on the premise it may retard chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression, ameliorate uremia, kidney stone formation, gout, hyperphosphatemia, and gut-derived uremic toxins.1Kovesdy C.P. Traditional and novel dietary interventions for preventing progression of chronic kidney disease.J Ren Nutr. 2013; 23: 241-245Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar However, the effectiveness of low-protein diets have been debated for decades, particularly the paucity and often conflicting evidence underpinning progression to ESKD2Klahr S. Levey A.S. Beck G.J. et al.The effects of dietary protein restriction and blood-pressure control on the progression of chronic renal disease. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group.N Engl J Med. 1994; 330: 877Crossref PubMed Scopus (2051) Google Scholar or all-cause mortality.3Fouque D. Laville M. Boissel J. Low protein diets for chronic kidney disease in non diabetic adults.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009; 3: CD001892PubMed Google Scholar One potential explanation for the conflicting evidence, which is gaining momentum in the literature, is the discussion of the optimal level and source of dietary protein, specifically the type of animal versus plant-based proteins.4Chan M. Kelly J. Tapsell L. Dietary modeling of foods for advanced CKD based on General Healthy Eating Guidelines: what should be on the plate?.Am J Kidney Dis. 2017; 69: 436-450Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar Emerging studies suggest that plant proteins are more protective than animal protein diets in the primary prevention of CKD. A recent analysis of NHANES III participants with reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) showed that protein consumption from plant-based sources was associated with significant lower risks of death compared with animal proteins (hazard ratio [HR] 0.85, 95% CI 0.75-0.96; P = .01).5Chen X. Wei G. Jalili T. et al.The associations of plant protein intake with all-cause mortality in CKD.Am J Kidney Dis. 2016; 67: 423-430Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (106) Google Scholar In the Nurses' Health Study,6Knight E.L. Stampfer M.J. Hankinson S.E. Spiegelman D. Curhan G.C. The impact of protein intake on renal function decline in women with normal renal function or mild renal insufficiency.Ann Intern Med. 2003; 138: 460-467Crossref PubMed Scopus (306) Google Scholar women with mild CKD consuming a high animal protein diet had significantly greater decline in GFR than women consuming more plant protein (show data). A small clinical study in healthy volunteers initially supported the notion that plant proteins are less harmful than animal proteins, even when matched for total protein intake, and independent of fiber added to the diet.7Kontessis P. Jones S. Dodds R. et al.Renal, metabolic and hormonal responses to ingestion of animal and vegetable proteins.Kidney Int. 1990; 38: 136-144Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar Meta-analysis of high versus normal protein diets demonstrate a diet high in animal protein significantly decreases the GFR in subjects without CKD. Conversely, the authors found insufficient evidence to prove that plant proteins delay the onset of CKD more so than animal proteins.8Schwingshackl L. Hoffmann G. Comparison of high vs. normal/low protein diets on renal function in subjects without chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2014; 9: e97656Crossref PubMed Scopus (75) Google Scholar In this issue of the Journal, we are presented with a large longitudinal data set from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study9Haring B. Selvin E. Liang M. et al.Dietary protein sources and risk for incident chronic kidney disease: results from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study.J Ren Nutr. 2017; 27: 233-242Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar involving 11,952 US community-dwelling adults free of CKD, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and heart failure. Sources of dietary protein intake were ascertained from validated food frequency questionnaires grouping protein from unprocessed red meat, processed red meat, red and processed meat intake (combined), poultry, fish and seafood, eggs, high-fat dairy products, low-fat dairy products, nuts, and legumes. During a mean follow-up of 23 years, individuals consuming the highest quartile of vegetable protein had a reduced HR of incident CKD of 24% in a multi-adjusted analysis (P < .002). Across all levels of protein intake, there was no significant protection of delaying incident CKD. However, when the analysis targeted individual food groupings, the deleterious effects of red meat proteins on kidney health became more apparent. There were significant increased risks of developing CKD for those who consumed more protein from red and processed meats (HR 1.23; P < .01), whereas the CKD risk was lower among those with a higher consumption of low-fat dairy proteins (HR 0.75; P < .001), fish and seafood (HR 0.89; P < .01), nuts (HR 0.81; P < .01), and legumes (HR 0.83; P < .03). Haring et al. go a step further in their analysis, showing that if an individual could simply substitute one serving of red and processed meats for one serving per day of the previously mentioned protein sources, the risk of incident CKD would be significantly reduced from 20%, 18%, 14%, and 31%, respectively. This well-performed epidemiologic analysis complements a previous investigation from the Singapore Chinese Health Study that similarly reported on the deleterious effects of high red meat intake and progression to ESKD in an Asian population.10Moe S.M. Zidehsarai M.P. Chambers M.A. et al.Vegetarian compared with meat dietary protein source and phosphorus homeostasis in chronic kidney disease.Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011; 6: 257-264Crossref PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar That study suggested that simply substituting one serving of red meat with either one serving of poultry, fish, eggs, or soy/legumes can result in significant declines in ESKD risk, of 62%, 49%, 45%, and 50%, respectively. In comparison, the Asian estimates of these substitution exercises are markedly more pronounced than the analysis from Haring et al., an issue perhaps attributed to the distinctly different habitual dietary pattern in Singapore versus the United States (lower consumption of fish and higher consumption of red meat and processed foods).11Packard D.P. Milton J.E. Shuler L.A. Short R.A. Tuttle K.R. Implications of chronic kidney disease for dietary treatment in cardiovascular disease.J Ren Nutr. 2006; 16: 259-268Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (18) Google Scholar, 12Koh W.P. Yang H.N. Yang H.Q. Low S.H. Seow A. Potential sources of carcinogenic heterocyclic amines in the Chinese diet: results from a 24-h dietary recall study in Singapore.Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005; 59: 16-23Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar In any case, evidence goes in line with a recent meta-analysis concluding that a plant protein–based dietary pattern to significantly reduce the risk of all-cause mortality in individuals with CKD.13Kelly J.T. Palmer S.C. Wai S.N. et al.Healthy dietary patterns and risk of mortality and ESRD in CKD: a meta-analysis of cohort studies.Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016; 12: 272-279Crossref PubMed Scopus (151) Google Scholar Are these associations explained by plant protein per se, by the overall dietary pattern that aligns with a higher plant protein intake, or by the healthier lifestyle that presumably accompanies a plant-rich diet? Animal proteins, in comparison to plant proteins, are of high biologic value (higher proportion of amino acids are absorbed by the gut) and more “complete” in their amino acid profile. They have therefore been historically viewed as superior (in terms of the quality of nutrients provided) to non-animal (plant-based) sources.4Chan M. Kelly J. Tapsell L. Dietary modeling of foods for advanced CKD based on General Healthy Eating Guidelines: what should be on the plate?.Am J Kidney Dis. 2017; 69: 436-450Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar However, these differences in amino acid composition may render different effects on kidney function. Individuals with high plant protein and low animal protein intake consume greater proportions of cysteine, proline, glycine, alanine and serine, and smaller proportions of the other 13 amino acids versus individuals with lower plant protein and higher animal protein intake. Seminal studies dating back 25 years suggested these differences, particularly in glycine and alanine content, may make protein sources impact differently on kidney damage.14Nakamura H. Ito S. Ebe N. Shibata A. Renal effects of different types of protein in healthy volunteer subjects and diabetic patients.Diabetes Care. 1993; 16: 1071-1075Crossref PubMed Scopus (36) Google Scholar, 15Woods L.L. Mechanisms of renal hemodynamic regulation in response to protein feeding.Kidney Int. 1993; 44: 659-675Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar Plant proteins are predominantly alkaline inducing, higher in inorganic phosphates (phytates, which have a poor absorption in the intestine), and come from foods that are inherently lower in saturated fat and overall calories (Table 1). A diet with a higher plant-based protein intake was found to be associated with higher bicarbonate levels and improved phosphorous balance in patients with non-dialysis CKD.16Scialla J.J. Appel L.J. Wolf M. et al.Plant protein intake is associated with fibroblast growth factor 23 and serum bicarbonate levels in patients with chronic kidney disease: the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort study.J Ren Nutr. 2012; 22: 379-388.e371Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (77) Google Scholar Clinical investigations support this association, finding that higher intake of fruits and vegetables reduces the renal acid load, blood pressure, and overall body weight in people with established CKD.17Goraya N. Simoni J. Jo C.H. Wesson D.E. A comparison of treating metabolic acidosis in CKD stage 4 hypertensive kidney disease with fruits and vegetables or sodium bicarbonate.Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013; 8: 371-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (250) Google Scholar Diets rich in plant-based proteins have also been found to decrease serum creatinine, C-reactive protein, and proteinuria in CKD,18Jing Z. Wei-Jie Y. Effects of soy protein containing isoflavones in patients with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Nutr. 2016; 35: 117-124Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar, 19Zhang J. Liu J. Su J. Tian F. The effects of soy protein on chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Eur J Clin Nutr. 2014; 68: 987-993Crossref PubMed Scopus (26) Google Scholar, 20Xu H. Sjogren P. Arnlov J. et al.A proinflammatory diet is associated with systemic inflammation and reduced kidney function in elderly adults.J Nutr. 2015; 145: 729-735Crossref PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar which in addition, when paired to higher fiber intake, is associated with reduced nephro-vascular uremic toxin production.21Rossi M. Johnson D.W. Campbell K.L. The kidney–gut axis: implications for nutrition care.J Ren Nutr. 2015; 25: 399-403Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar In a crossover trial in 9 patients with non-dialysis CKD, 1 week of a predominantly plant protein diet prepared by clinical research staff, equivalent in nutrients to a meat-based diet led to decreased serum phosphorus and fibroblast growth factor 23 levels.10Moe S.M. Zidehsarai M.P. Chambers M.A. et al.Vegetarian compared with meat dietary protein source and phosphorus homeostasis in chronic kidney disease.Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011; 6: 257-264Crossref PubMed Scopus (368) Google ScholarTable 1Key Differences in the Nutrition Profile of Plant and Animal ProteinsPlant ProteinAnimal ProteinCaloriesLowHighEssential amino acidsNot complete – exception is quinoa.Simple meal planning allows patients to complete the essential amino acid profileCompleteSaturated fatLowHighUnsaturated fatHighLowFiberHighLowIronNon-haem iron∗Higher intake of phytic acid in plant protein diets can decrease absorption.,†Vitamin C foods increase absorption.Present in beans, spinach, raisins, cashews, oatmeal, cabbage, tomato juiceHaem ironHighly bioavailableSodiumLowHighPotassiumHighLow potassium options if requiredLowPhosphateLow∗Higher intake of phytic acid in plant protein diets can decrease absorption.Lower phosphate-protein ratioHighHigher phosphate-protein ratioUremic toxinsLowHarbors saccharolytic bacteriaHighHarbors proteolytic bacteriaAntioxidantsHighLowB12LowPresent in brown bread, muesli, pickled cucumber, sauerkrautHighCalciumLow∗Higher intake of phytic acid in plant protein diets can decrease absorption.Present in tofu, mustard and turnip greens, bok choy, kale, spinachHigh in dairy foodsFolateHighLowMagnesiumHighLowMeat and fish are sources of magnesiumZincLow∗Higher intake of phytic acid in plant protein diets can decrease absorption.Present in wholegrain breads, cereals, oats, brown rice, nuts, seeds, legumes, tofu, soy, fortified breakfast cerealsHigh∗ Higher intake of phytic acid in plant protein diets can decrease absorption.† Vitamin C foods increase absorption. Open table in a new tab Nonetheless, a person consuming a diet rich in plant protein is perhaps more aware of healthy eating or a healthy lifestyle, and these are residual confounding factors that make drawing conclusions from epidemiology in this area challenging. In fact, the benefits of consuming a plant-rich dietary pattern probably go beyond source of protein and could be attributed to the overall foods and nutrients consumed together22Kelly J.T. Rossi M. Johnson D.W. Campbell K.L. Beyond sodium, phosphate and potassium: potential dietary interventions in kidney disease.Semin Dial. 2017; 30: 197-202Crossref PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar (Table 1). Further differences in diets with a plant-based intake also include a higher intake of fruit and vegetables (with vitamins and antioxidants),23Wai S. Kelly J. Johnson D. Campbell K. Dietary patterns and clinical outcomes in chronic kidney disease: the CKD.QLD Nutrition Study.J Ren Nutr. 2016; 27: 175-182Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar fish and omega-3 fatty acids,24Chrysohoou C. Pitsavos C. Panagiotakos D. et al.Long-term fish intake preserves kidney function in elderly individuals: the Ikaria study.J Ren Nutr. 2013; 23: e75-e82Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (16) Google Scholar legumes, wholegrain cereals and nuts,25Gutiérrez O.M. Muntner P. Rizk D.V. et al.Dietary patterns and risk of death and progression to ESRD in individuals with CKD: a cohort study.Am J Kidney Dis. 2014; 64: 204-213Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar, 26White J. Crunch on This… A Fresh Look at Nuts for Renal Nutrition.J Ren Nutr. 2017; 27: e7-e9Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (3) Google Scholar and at the same time a lower consumption of sodium,27McMahon E.J. Campbell K.L. Bauer J.D. Mudge D.W. Altered dietary salt intake for people with chronic kidney disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015; 2: CD010070Google Scholar red meat,28Lew Q.-L.J. Jafar T.H. Koh H.W.L. et al.Red meat intake and risk of ESRD.J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016; 28: 304-312Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar saturated fats,29Lin J. Judd S. Le A. et al.Associations of dietary fat with albuminuria and kidney dysfunction.Am J Clin Nutr. 2010; 92: 897-904Crossref PubMed Scopus (58) Google Scholar and common phosphate additives.30McCutcheon J. Campbell K. Ferguson M. Day S. Rossi M. Prevalence of phosphorus-based additives in the Australian food supply: a challenge for dietary education?.J Ren Nutr. 2015; 25: 440-444Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (16) Google Scholar At the end of the day, this evidence is in keeping with the dietary advice given in healthy eating guidelines to the general population4Chan M. Kelly J. Tapsell L. Dietary modeling of foods for advanced CKD based on General Healthy Eating Guidelines: what should be on the plate?.Am J Kidney Dis. 2017; 69: 436-450Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar and may give rationale to public health strategies for primary CKD prevention. Although it is a tempting argument, based on these emerging data, that the CKD diet should be more liberalized to “allow” for these higher plant-based intakes, we must bear in mind that observational analyses in population samplings with low estimated GFR may not necessarily extrapolate to referred patients undergoing dietary management with CKD. Observational and interventional studies are required in these referred and managed patients in order to test the hypothesis of the beneficial effects of liberalized diets in the context of the delicate equilibrium of phosphate and potassium intake.31Biruete A. Jeong J.H. Barnes J.L. Wilund K.R. Modified nutritional recommendations to improve dietary patterns and outcomes in hemodialysis patients.J Ren Nutr. 2017; 27: 62-70Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar To conclude, the exciting article of Haring et al.9Haring B. Selvin E. Liang M. et al.Dietary protein sources and risk for incident chronic kidney disease: results from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study.J Ren Nutr. 2017; 27: 233-242Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar suggests that we should consider the differences between protein sources in retarding CKD progression. Because plant protein is not consumed in isolation, the way of implementing these observations into clinical practice is by targeting changes in the overall pattern of eating. Adopting a patient-centered educational approach which shifts focus onto foods, such as wholegrains, fruits, vegetables, as well as proteins from poultry and seafood, rather than “protein” per se, may be of benefit for both the translation of the message and also for disease management. This article furthers our understanding on how substituting foods rather than nutrients affect clinical outcomes for CKD patients. We hope this article encourages these discussions and may lead to future intervention studies to test this impeding question: can a plant-based dietary pattern matched for protein be more effective in retarding CKD progression that a low-protein diet alone? Dietary Protein Sources and Risk for Incident Chronic Kidney Disease: Results From the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) StudyJournal of Renal NutritionVol. 27Issue 4PreviewDietary protein restriction is recommended for patients with moderate to severe renal insufficiency. Long-term data on the relationship between dietary protein sources and risk for incident kidney disease in individuals with normal kidney function are largely missing. This study aimed to assess the association between dietary protein sources and incident chronic kidney disease (CKD). Full-Text PDF" @default.
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• W2620154414 title "Dietary Sources of Protein and Chronic Kidney Disease Progression: The Proof May Be in the Pattern" @default.
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