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• W2624993602 abstract "Introduction We Makonde prefer to have food in plenty and go far for our water rather than to sit near the water and starve. (1) Fresh water in coastal Tanzania was long regarded as a communally held resource, shared by all and exclusive to none. Cultural adaptations to extreme fluctuations in fresh water led the Makonde people, who comprised the largest population at Mikindani, to develop social and cultural practices that kept villages safe from flooding. In the coastal township of Mikindani this practice led residents to rely upon natural springs and wells far from the town's center, away from the coastline, along the base of the escarpment. In 1931, Mikindani was a small trading port and British administrative outpost with approximately 2000 African inhabitants and 280 Asiatics, which included South Asians and Arabs, who were most likely Swahili traders. (2) According to colonial officials, the town's Arabs [Swahili] were of two distinct classes ... holders of large properties who are wealthy and those who are little better off than the natives. (3) The African population while less clearly stratified, was far from uniform, comprised of various waves of migration and settlement into the region. The most entrenched identified as Maraba, which helped differentiate between Muslim Makonde and their unconverted kin. (4) As a country town that once owed allegiance to the Sultan of Kilwa, Mikindani formulated a space where identity was self-constructed and prone to shifts as residents came to understand their relationship with others based on their own town, putative origins, status or descent group. (5) Mikindani was a more complex community than its demographics suggest, largely because British colonial officials used broad racial categories that failed to note the social and cultural diversity. The African inhabitants expressed an expansive array of possible 'ethnic' characteristics that proved elusive to define by outsiders' methods. Coastal patricians constructed their identity through layers of settlement and religion that had little to do with the nomenclature assigned them by administrators. (6) This paper examines how the residents at Mikindani navigated the fraught process of commodification and regulation of water, a most vital resource. Colonial officials wanted to establish a fee-based water system, but they did so with minimal investment in the water-delivery infrastructure. I argue that Africans proved willing consumers of newly packaged material goods, but defective or ill-suited equipment, irregular water distribution, and unreasonable fee schedules led to tensions between officials and members of the Mikindani population. While other studies by Mattias Tagseth, Heather Hoag and May-Britt Ohman, and Matthew Bender examine late and postcolonial water regulation projects on the slopes of Mt. Kilimajaro and the Rufiji River basin, this study provides an early picture of the complexities in state efforts to regulate and commodify a limited natural resource in an urban setting. (7) The small administrative station looked like a promising site for an experimental shift from open wells to secured waterlines, which implied improved health for townspeople and, in principle, added convenience. As African complaints about unreasonable fees increased, officials endeavored to criminalize Africans who could not pay. By 1937, open wells disappeared behind fences, replaced by piped water that forced Africans to buy a resource that heretofore was free to everyone. Cultural differences as well as the inequalities and violence of the colonial state contributed to the conflicts over water access and water levies. The various communities understood their obligations to the scheme in different ways. South Asian merchants and Swahili traders expected fee remissions when they were not using the water supply. The over-burdened African population were not only unwilling, but were unable to pay fees for a service that was inconsistent and peculiar in its demands for monetary exchange when open wells were accessible. …" @default.
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• W2624993602 date "2016-03-01" @default.
• W2624993602 modified "2023-09-24" @default.
• W2624993602 title "Commodifying Water in Coastal Tanzania: Natural Resource Management and Social Relations, 1926-1937" @default.
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