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• W2765699054 abstract "Promoting Flexible Problem Solving: The Effects of Direct Instruction and Self-Explaining Bethany Rittle-Johnson (bethany.rittle-johnson@vanderbilt.edu) Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University 230 Appleton Place, Peabody #512, Nashville, TN 37203 Abstract Invention vs. Instruction How do people learn flexible problem-solving knowledge, rather than inert knowledge that is not applied to novel problems? Both the source of the knowledge – instructed or invented – and a central learning process – engaging in self- explanation – may influence the development of problem- solving flexibility. Seventy-seven third- through fifth-grade students learned about mathematical equivalence under one of four conditions that varied on two dimensions: 1) prompts to self-explain and 2) invention vs. instruction on a procedure. Both self-explaining and direct instruction helped students to learn a correct problem solving procedure. Self-explanation promoted transfer, whereas direct instruction had both positive and negative effects on transfer. Overall, self- explanation is an important learning mechanism underling the acquisition of flexible problem solving with or without direct instruction. Introduction Everyday, we are faced with new problems to solve. How do we complete our income tax return, write a new resume, or find a new route home given recent road construction? When faced with a problem repeatedly, we often develop procedures for solving the problem, i.e. step-by-step methods for solving the problem. Ideally, we learn flexible, relatively abstract procedures that we can appropriately apply to a variety of tasks so that we do not need to invent new procedures when task conditions shift. Flexible, abstract, knowledge is also a key characteristic of expertise (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981). Thus, understanding how people develop flexible, abstract knowledge is crucial for understanding learning and development and for designing learning environments to support flexibility. Unfortunately, people of all ages and across a large range of domains often gain inert knowledge instead – knowledge that is not applied to new situations (see Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2001 for a review). For example, physics students typically fail to use knowledge of physics principles, such as Newton’s Laws, to solve everyday problems (Halloun & Hestenes, 1985). Indeed, even scientists sometimes fail to use their scientific knowledge to solve mundane tasks (Lewis & Linn, 1994). How do people learn flexible knowledge, rather than simply gaining inert knowledge, and how can we support this learning? In the current study, two processes were evaluated: 1) The source of new knowledge – invention or direct instruction and 2) A potential mechanism underlying flexible learning - generating self-explanations for why and how things work. Where do new procedures come from? Typically, we invent a procedure through problem exploration or we learn a procedure from others (e.g. via imitation or direct instruction). Major theories of learning and philosophies of education differ in their emphasis on the sources of new procedures. The current paper focuses on one source of knowledge from other people – direct instruction – and compares it to inventing procedures on ones own. Invention and learning from direct instruction can both lead to learning of the target behavior or knowledge (e.g. Judd, 1908). However, a major concern with discovery learning is that a substantial proportion of learners never invent a correct procedure or engage in correct ways of thinking (Mayer, 2004). Another critical issue is the relative effectiveness of each source of knowledge for supporting flexible, generalizable knowledge. Direct instruction on a procedure can lead people to learn the procedure by rote, to make nonsensical errors and to be unable to transfer the procedure to solve novel problems (e.g. Brown & Burton, 1978; Hiebert & Wearne, 1986), whereas when people invent procedures, they often use the procedures flexibly in new situations (Hiebert & Wearne, 1996). Thus, there appears to be a trade-off between instruction improving problem solving on a restricted range of problems but potentially harming flexible problem solving on a broader range of problems. The current study evaluates the pros and cons of direct instruction versus encouragement to invent a procedure on a single task and evaluates the role of self-explaining as a learning mechanism under both conditions. Self-Explaining A potential mechanism underlying the impact of instruction and invention on procedural flexibility (and learning more generally) is learners’ attempts to generate explanations for why and how things work. Successful learners typically generated explanations while studying worked-examples to problems. These explanations included identification of gaps in understanding and linkages to previous examples or sections in the text (Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989). Subsequent research indicates that learners ranging from 5-years-old to adulthood in domains ranging from number conservation to computer programming can learn more if they are prompted to generate self-explanations (Aleven & Koedinger, 2002; Bielaczyc, Pirolli, & Brown, 1995; Chi, de Leeuw, Chiu, & LaVancher, 1994). These findings are cooborated by findings from classroom-based research on individual differences and on cross-cultural" @default.
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