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• W285315680 abstract "Now spoken sounds are signs of affections in the soul, and written marks signs of spoken sounds. And just written marks are not the same for all men, neither are spoken sounds. But what these are in the first place signs of--affections of the soul--are the same for all; and what these affections are likenesses of--actual things--are also the same. Aristotle, De Interpretatione, 16a3-8.(1) Every sign by itself seems dead. What gives it life?--In use it is alive. Is life breathed into it there?--Or is the use its life? Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, Part 1, [sections]432.(2) IN HIS COMMENTARY on Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations, Garth Hallett records Wittgenstein's extensive reading of Augustine's Confessions. By contrast, he remarks that Wittgenstein never read anything of Aristotle. However, he also reports Rush Rhees saying that at the time of his death Wittgenstein had in his possession the first two volumes of a German-Latin edition of Aquinas's Summa Theologiae,(3) containing questions 1-26 of the Prima Pars. Question 13 concerns the Divine Names, the first article asking whether a name can be given to God. Aquinas begins his answer by referring to the passage from De Interpretatione quoted above: Since, according to the Philosopher, words are signs of ideas, and ideas the similitudes of things, it is evident that words function in the signification of things through the conception of the intellect.(4) Nowhere, so far I know, does Wittgenstein discuss Aquinas. Famously, however, the Investigations begins with a quotation from Augustine's Confessions, and the passage in question might be thought to presume a view of signification akin to that presented by Aristotle and quoted by Aquinas. Augustine writes: When they (my elders) named some object, and accordingly moved towards something, I saw this and I grasped that the thing was called by the sound they uttered when they meant to point it out. Their intention was shewn [sic] by their bodily movements, it were the natural language of all peoples: the expression of the face, the play of the eyes, the movement of other parts of the body, and the tone of voice which expresses our state of mind. . . . Thus I heard words repeatedly used in their proper places in various sentences, I gradually learned to understand what objects they signified; and after I had trained my mouth to form these signs, I used them to express my own desires.(5) Wittgenstein makes this passage a target of critical discussion, but interestingly the aspect he focuses upon is the suggestion that words are names of objects.(6) Here I am concerned with another, and I believe more central, aspect of Augustine's remarks, namely the idea, explicit in Aristotle and Aquinas, that the meaningfulness of utterances derives from that of mental concepts. I want to suggest that some version of that view may be defensible, even allowing the efficacy of Wittgenstein's attacks on ideational theories of meaning. II Allowing that meaning is independent of speakers in the sense that an individual cannot use a term just he wishes and still expect to be understood, it is also true that were it not for individuals seeking to express themselves language would not exist. In concluding his examination of the debate between theorists of communication-intention and those of formal semantics, Strawson remarks that as theorists we know nothing of language unless we understand human speech.(7) What he is observing is that we shall not have an adequate idea of the nature of meaning unless we attend to the fact that language exists to express beliefs, intentions, desires, and the like, and to serve their communication between one person and another. The compatibility of a view of meaning involving speakers' psychological attitudes with the affirmation of the relative autonomy of linguistic sense requires an account of speech-acts formed by and conforming to established patterns of use. …" @default.
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• W285315680 date "1994-03-01" @default.
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• W285315680 title "The Life of Signs" @default.
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