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• W2883876004 abstract "See Related Article on p. 88In the United States, as of March 2018, medical use of marijuana is legal in 28 states and the District of Columbia, and recreational use is legal in eight states and the District of Columbia [1NCSLMarijuana overview.http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal-justice/marijuana-overview.aspx#2Date: 2017Date accessed: March 5, 2018Google Scholar, 2Governing the States and LocalitiesState marijuna laws map.http://www.governing.com/gov-data/state-marijuana-laws-map-medical-recreational.htmlDate: 2018Date accessed: March 5, 2018Google Scholar]. The liberalization of marijuana laws raises public health concerns, particularly about possible effects on adolescents’ marijuana use and problems. Despite potential risks [3Asbridge M. Hayden J.A. Cartwright J.L. Acute cannabis consumption and motor vehicle collision risk: Systematic review of observational studies and meta-analysis.BMJ. 2012; 344: e536Crossref PubMed Scopus (514) Google Scholar, 4Asbridge M. et al.Cannabis and traffic collision risk: Findings from a case-crossover study of injured drivers presenting to emergency departments.Int J Public Health. 2014; 59: 395-404Crossref PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar, 5Bechtold J. et al.Concurrent and sustained cumulative effects of adolescent marijuana use on subclinical psychotic symptoms.Am J Psychiatry. 2016; 173: 781-789Crossref PubMed Scopus (46) Google Scholar, 6Chen C.Y. Storr C.L. Anthony J.C. Early-onset drug use and risk for drug dependence problems.Addict Behav. 2009; 34: 319-322Crossref PubMed Scopus (335) Google Scholar, 7Green K.M. et al.Does heavy adolescent marijuana use lead to criminal involvement in adulthood? Evidence from a multiwave longitudinal study of urban African Americans.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010; 112: 117-125Crossref PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar, 8Hall W. The adverse health effects of cannabis use: What are they, and what are their implications for policy?.Int J Drug Policy. 2009; 20: 458-466Crossref PubMed Scopus (158) Google Scholar, 9Hall W. Degenhardt L. Adverse health effects of non-medical cannabis use.Lancet. 2009; 374: 1383-1391Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (826) Google Scholar, 10Volkow N.D. et al.Adverse health effects of marijuana use.N Engl J Med. 2014; 370: 2219-2227Crossref PubMed Scopus (1614) Google Scholar, 11Volkow N.D. et al.Effects of cannabis use on human behavior, including cognition,motivation, and psychosis: A review.JAMA Psychiatry. 2016; 73: 292-297Crossref PubMed Scopus (498) Google Scholar], the 2016 Monitoring the Future survey shows that 36% of 12th graders and 24% of 10th graders reported past-year marijuana use and 23% and 14%, respectively, reported past 30-day use [[12]Miech R.A. et al.Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2016: Volume I, secondary school students. Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor2017Google Scholar]. About 81% of 12th graders and 64% of 10th graders reported that marijuana is “fairly easy” or “very easy” to get. Only 31% of 12th graders and 44% of 10th graders perceived “great risk” in regular marijuana use. See Related Article on p. 88 Commercialization of cannabis, including marijuana, concentrates, and edibles, may affect adolescents’ use directly by increasing availability or indirectly by promoting beliefs that its use is safe and normative [13Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ1986Google Scholar, 14Fishbein, M. and I. Ajzen, Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. 2010, New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar, 15Friese B. Grube J.W. Legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use among youths.Drugs Educ Prev Policy. 2013; 20: 33-39Crossref Scopus (56) Google Scholar, 16Lipperman-Kreda S. Grube J.W. Students' perception of community disapproval, perceived enforcement of school antismoking policies, personal beliefs, and their cigarette smoking behaviors: Results from a structural equation modeling analysis.Nicotine Tob Res. 2009; 11: 531-539Crossref PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar]. Although legal sales of recreational marijuana are restricted to adults, enforcement compliance checks indicate that between 11% and 23% of recreational outlets may sell to minors [17Denver PostPolice issue 7 citations for underage marijuana sales.http://www.denverpost.com/2015/09/30/denver-police-issue-7-citations-for-underage-marijuana-sales/Date: 2016Date accessed: September 2, 2016Google Scholar, 18Washington State Liquor and Cannabis BoardMarijuana Compliance Checks: 18 of 157 recreational marijuana stores sell to minors.http://www.liq.wa.gov/pressreleases/marijuana-compliance-checks-18-157-recreational-marijuana-stores-sell-minorsDate: 2016Date accessed: September 2, 2016Google Scholar]. In addition, commercialization may increase the availability of marijuana through diversion, increase exposure to aggressive marketing tactics by the emerging cannabis industry, or increase exposure to others who use or illicitly sell marijuana. Legalization of cultivation for personal use raises additional concerns about access and exposure. Co-use of marijuana with other drugs may be exacerbated by legalization [[19]Wang J.B. et al.Medical marijuana legalization and cigarette and marijuana co-use in adolescents and adults.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016; 166: 32-38Crossref PubMed Scopus (56) Google Scholar]. Although some studies have found positive associations between densities of medical marijuana dispensaries and marijuana use among adults [20Freisthler B. Gruenewald P.J. Examining the relationship between the physical availability of medical marijuana and marijuana use across fifty California cities.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014; 143: 244-250Crossref PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar, 21Morrison C. et al.The economic geography of medical cannabis dispensaries in California.Int J Drug Policy. 2014; 25: 508-515Crossref PubMed Scopus (49) Google Scholar], very little is known about the potential influence of adolescents’ exposure to marijuana dispensaries, recreational outlets, and marketing or the mechanisms through which such exposure may affect their marijuana use. Studies showing associations between adolescents’ exposure to alcohol and tobacco outlets and use of those substances [22Lipperman-Kreda S. et al.Youth activity spaces and daily exposure to tobacco outlets.Health Place. 2015; 34: 30-33Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar, 23Lipperman-Kreda S. et al.Density and proximity of tobacco outlets to homes and schools: Relations with youth cigarette smoking.Prev Sci. 2014; 15: 738-744Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar, 24Lipperman-Kreda S. Grube J.W. Friend K.B. Local tobacco policy and tobacco outlet density: Associations with youth smoking.J Adolesc Health. 2012; 50: 547-552Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar, 25Chen M.J. Grube J.W. Gruenewald P.J. Community alcohol outlet density and underage drinking.Addiction. 2010; 105: 270-278Crossref PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar, 26Paschall M.J. et al.Relationships between local enforcement, alcohol availability, drinking norms, and adolescent alcohol use in 50 California cities.J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2012; 73: 657-665Crossref PubMed Scopus (63) Google Scholar, 27Chan W.C. Leatherdale S.T. Tobacco retailer density surrounding schools andyouth smoking behaviour: A multi-level analysis.Tob Induc Dis. 2011; 9: 9Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar, 28Henriksen, L., et al., Is adolescent smoking related to the density and proximity of tobacco outlets and retail cigarette advertising near schools? Prev Med, 2008. 47: p. 210–214.Google Scholar, 29Shortt NK, Tisch C, Pearce J, Richardson EA, Mitchell R. The density of tobacco retailers in home and school environments and relationship with adolescent smoking behaviours in Scotland. Tob Control. 2016;25:75–82.Google Scholar, 30Shih R.A. et al.Associations between neighborhood alcohol availability and young adolescent alcohol use.Psychol Addict Behav. 2015; 29: 950-959Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar, 31Byrnes H.F. et al.Tracking adolescents with global positioning system-enabled cell phones to study contextual exposures and alcohol and marijuana use: Apilot study.J Adolesc Health. 2015; 57: 245-247Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (25) Google Scholar, 32Lipperman-Kreda S. et al.Tobacco outlet density, retailer cigarette sales without ID checks and enforcement of underage tobacco laws: Associations with youths' cigarette smoking and beliefs.Addiction. 2016; 111: 525-532Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar, 33Finan LJ, et al. Tobacco outlet density and adolescents' cigarette smoking: A meta-analysis. Tob Control 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-054065. [Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar] suggests the importance of investigating exposure to retail access and marketing of marijuana. The article by Shi et al. in this issue [[34]Shi Y. Cummins S.E. Zhu S. Medical marijuana availability, price, and product variety and adolescents’ marijuana use.J Adolesc Health. 2018; 63: 88-93Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (12) Google Scholar] makes a timely contribution to this field of research by investigating associations of proximity and density of medical marijuana dispensaries, price of medical marijuana products, and variety of products sold in school neighborhoods with adolescents’ marijuana use and susceptibility. Results showed no associations between adolescents’ current use or susceptibility to use marijuana and proximity or density of medical marijuana dispensaries around schools, price, and product variety. Focusing on exposure around school neighborhoods, this study used traditional measures of proximity and density of outlets around schools. Such measures are often used in studies to assess influences of exposure to alcohol and tobacco outlets on use of those substances. However, research shows that the locations in which young people spend their time are varied and geographically dispersed, and not captured by geographical boundaries such as school or home neighborhoods [35Mason M. Cheung I. Walker L. Substance use, social networks, and the geography of urban adolescents.Subst Use Misuse. 2004; 39: 1751-1777Crossref PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar, 36Mason M.J. Mennis J. An exploratory study of the effects of neighborhood characteristicson adolescent substance use.Addic Res Theor. 2010; 18: 33-50Crossref Scopus (17) Google Scholar]. Activity spaces include all locations and the routes the individuals experience as a result of their daily activities [37Miller H.J. Modelling accessibility using space-time prism concepts withingeographical information systems.Int J Geogr Inf Syst. 1991; 5: 287-301Crossref Scopus (513) Google Scholar, 38Schönfelder S. Axhausen K.W. Activity spaces: Measures of social exclusion?.Transp Policy. 2003; 10: 273-286Crossref Scopus (312) Google Scholar, 39Browning C.R. Soller B. Moving beyond neighborhood: Activity spaces and ecological networks as contexts for youth development.Cityscape. 2014; 16: 165-196PubMed Google Scholar]. Recent studies have found that adolescents’ activity spaces provide a more accurate measure of alcohol and tobacco outlet exposures than do traditional measures [22Lipperman-Kreda S. et al.Youth activity spaces and daily exposure to tobacco outlets.Health Place. 2015; 34: 30-33Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar, 31Byrnes H.F. et al.Tracking adolescents with global positioning system-enabled cell phones to study contextual exposures and alcohol and marijuana use: Apilot study.J Adolesc Health. 2015; 57: 245-247Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (25) Google Scholar]. Future research should consider marijuana retail availability in the broader environments where adolescents spend their time. Moreover, the cannabis market is evolving in ways that make itdifferent than the tobacco and alcohol markets. In addition to marijuana, myriad cannabis products (e.g., edibles, concentrates, infusions, tinctures, lotions, and butters) are available and heavily marketed. These products can be smoked, eaten, vaped, or used topically. Many of these products are easily transportable and readily concealed or disguised. Many of them can be used covertly (e.g., candies), possibly making use by adolescents less risky than is the case for most alcohol or tobacco products. As noted by Shi et al. [[34]Shi Y. Cummins S.E. Zhu S. Medical marijuana availability, price, and product variety and adolescents’ marijuana use.J Adolesc Health. 2018; 63: 88-93Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (12) Google Scholar], future research should consider the range of cannabis products to more accurately assess the effects of marijuana commercialization on adolescents’ marijuana beliefs and use. In addition, unlike alcohol and tobacco, there remains a substantial illegal market. Given tax policies and the resulting price differentials, the underground market may remain a preferred source of marijuana for adolescents. The situation is further complicated by provisions allowing individuals to grow marijuana for personal use, possibly providing access for adolescents directly from family members, friends, and acquaintances who grow it or by providing increased opportunities to steal it. Although the legal market may not be a primary source of marijuana for adolescents, it nonetheless may have an influence by increasing open consumption in public and the home, by normalizing marijuana use, and by increasing exposure to marketing. Importantly, some adolescents (e.g., impulsive or marginalized youth) may be more susceptible to exposure to marijuana outlets in their daily lives, and therefore at greater risk for marijuana use, susceptibility, and problems. The lack of associations between the geography of marijuana dispensaries and marijuana use by adolescents, observed by Shi et al. [[34]Shi Y. Cummins S.E. Zhu S. Medical marijuana availability, price, and product variety and adolescents’ marijuana use.J Adolesc Health. 2018; 63: 88-93Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (12) Google Scholar], suggests that the mechanisms by which retail marijuana availability may influence adolescents’ use and problems may be complex. As the national landscape regarding marijuana legalization changes in the United States, more research is needed to understand adolescents’ exposures to marijuana commercialization and the mechanisms by which exposures to marijuana dispensaries, recreational outlets, and marketing may affect marijuana use and beliefs. Such research is important to guide policies and prevention efforts to reduce the potential negative effects of marijuana commercialization. This research and preparation of this manuscript were supported by grant P60-AA006282 from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and grant 25IR-0029 from the California Tobacco-Related Disease Research Program (TRDRP). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIAAA, NIH, or TRDRP." @default.
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• W2883876004 title "Impacts of Marijuana Commercialization on Adolescents’ Marijuana Beliefs, Use, and Co-use With Other Substances" @default.
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