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• W289359752 abstract "I. INTRODUCTION On October 2, 2000, the Human Rights Act 1998 entered into force in the United Kingdom, bringing to fruition a decades-long effort to incorporate the fundamental rights guaranteed by the European Convention on Human Rights into U.K. national law. Prior to the act's adoption, individuals in the United Kingdom had no legal recourse to directly enforce their rights under the Convention in national courts. Instead, plaintiffs were forced to exhaust all local remedies under U.K. law and, only when that failed, were they able to appeal to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.3 The Human Rights Act (HRA), passed as a result of strong efforts by political parties, scholars, lawyers, and judges, has now formally become the United Kingdom's version of a bill of rights.4 By altering the relationship between the judiciary and Parliament, the HRA has essentially ushered in a new model of rights protection in the United Kingdom.5 For the first time in the United Kingdom's constitutional history, the courts now have the power to declare that an act of Parliament is incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights (the Convention), thereby giving them the power of quasi-judicial review.6 Although Parliament is not thereafter legally required to respond to the declaration of incompatibility, by challenging the entrenched notion that Parliament can do no wrong, the HRA encourages the courts to exercise their powers in a manner that will ideally prompt changes by Parliament and contribute to stronger internal protection of human rights.7 In addition, the HRA changes the relationship between the U.K. national courts and judgments of the European Court of Human Rights (the ECHR or the Court) by requiring U.K. courts to take into account any decisions or judgments made by the ECHR when U.K. courts rule on issues that have arisen under the HRA.8 Despite the national courts' new role, between October 2, 2000, and April 30, 2002, out of a total of 428 HRA cases brought before the U.K. courts, only four declarations of incompatibility were made.9 However, it was not until the ECHR decided the case Goodwin v. United Kingdom that the true power of the HRA came to be tested within the borders of the United Kingdom. Because the claims brought in Goodwin arose prior to the enactment of the HRA, a violation of the Convention could not be argued in the domestic courts.10 Rather, the significance of the case lies in its effect as a judgment of the ECHR, which must now be taken directly into account by the U.K. courts when deciding cases brought under the HRA.11 In Goodwin, the plaintiff was a postoperative male-to-female transsexual who was prohibited from changing her sex on several official documents.12 The ECHR declared that several pieces of U.K. legislation violated Convention Article 8's right of respect for private life and, more remarkably, Article 12's right to marry.13 As human rights groups rejoiced at the victory, the U.K. government made promises to change U.K. law so as to bring it into conformity with the ECHR's judgment.14 In spite of the ECHR's firm pronouncement that the United Kingdom must now extend equal rights to transsexuals, the subsequent case Bellinger v. Bellinger showed that the U.K. national courts still have far to go in taking on more responsibility under the HRA.15 Bellinger also involved the right of transsexuals to marry in the United Kingdom yet, in contrast to Goodwin, was brought under the weight of both the HRA and several ECHR cases as precedent. The House of Lords declared that Section 11(c) of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 (which prohibited the plaintiff from marrying in her acquired gender) was incompatible with Article 12 of the Convention yet, instead of making Elizabeth Bellinger's marriage valid, deferred the matter to Parliament, which had already begun working on new legislation in response to Goodwin.16 Since the decision in Bellinger, Parliament has only recently passed the Gender Recognition Act 2004, legislation that gives legal recognition to transsexuals in their acquired genders, but that has also been criticized with respect to several provisions. …" @default.
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• W289359752 date "2005-07-01" @default.
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• W289359752 title "Vindication without Substance: Gender Recognition and the Human Rights Act" @default.
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