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• W2950898064 abstract "Sodium-metal batteries (SMBs) are emerging as a high-energy-density system toward stationary energy storage and even electric vehicles. Four representative SMBs—Na-O2, Na-CO2, Na-SO2, and RT-Na/S batteries—are gaining extensive attention because of their high theoretical specific density (863–1,876 Wh kg−1) and low cost, which are beyond those of conventional SMBs, which promise an ultimate value of 500 Wh kg−1. SMBs share a similar cell configuration by pairing metallic sodium anodes with sluggish cathodes. Research on and understanding of these SMBs are in their infancy and remain unclear. This review demonstrates the principles and obstacles of these SMBs. We focus on the key advances and interactions of battery components in terms of superior cathode hosts for gaseous O2, CO2, and SO2 and solid S, compatible electrolytes, and stable sodium anodes. This work is expected to illuminate the prospects ahead for the development of next-generation sodium-metal-based energy storage technologies. Emerging rechargeable sodium-metal batteries (SMBs) are gaining extensive attention because of the high energy density, low cost, and promising potentials for large-scale applications. The mechanism investigation and performance optimization of SMBs are of great significance for fundamental science and practical applications. Consequently, this review provides fundamental insights into the cell chemistry and recent progress on several representative SMBs, including Na-O2, Na-CO2, Na-SO2, and room-temperature Na-S batteries, for which the Na-storage mechanisms, potential solutions for enhancing battery performance, and future perspectives are discussed. We emphasize the importance and challenges of sodium-metal anodes, as well as summarize and highlight feasible strategies to address the challenging issues facing them. Combined with current research achievements, this review offers future research directions from the viewpoint of better SMB full cells regarding cathode design and anode protection with compatible electrolyte systems. Emerging rechargeable sodium-metal batteries (SMBs) are gaining extensive attention because of the high energy density, low cost, and promising potentials for large-scale applications. The mechanism investigation and performance optimization of SMBs are of great significance for fundamental science and practical applications. Consequently, this review provides fundamental insights into the cell chemistry and recent progress on several representative SMBs, including Na-O2, Na-CO2, Na-SO2, and room-temperature Na-S batteries, for which the Na-storage mechanisms, potential solutions for enhancing battery performance, and future perspectives are discussed. We emphasize the importance and challenges of sodium-metal anodes, as well as summarize and highlight feasible strategies to address the challenging issues facing them. Combined with current research achievements, this review offers future research directions from the viewpoint of better SMB full cells regarding cathode design and anode protection with compatible electrolyte systems. From the standpoint of fossil depletion and the greenhouse effect, shifting electricity production from traditional fossil fuels to renewable clean energy is urgently needed, especially with the benefits of wind and solar power. By integrating with battery technologies, the energy generation can be stored and conserved to be widely deployed in multiple applications. Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been dominating the electricity market of portable electronic devices over the past three decades and are being applied into electric vehicles (EVs) along with the state-of-the-art development. The extensive application of LIBs, however, is threatened by the rapid cost rises due to the increasing market demands and the shortage and uneven dispersion of Li resources.1Armand M. Tarascon J.M. Building better batteries.Nature. 2008; 451: 652-657Crossref PubMed Scopus (15044) Google Scholar The ever-growing demand on large-scale energy reserve systems promotes the development on low-cost-battery systems beyond LIBs.2Tarascon J.M. Armand M. Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries.Nature. 2001; 414: 359-367Crossref PubMed Scopus (16279) Google Scholar, 3Etacheri V. Marom R. Elazari R. Salitra G. Aurbach D. Challenges in the development of advanced Li-ion batteries: a review.Energy Environ. Sci. 2011; 4: 3243-3262Crossref Scopus (5094) Google Scholar Recently, a series of alkali-metal-ion-based batteries, including sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and aluminum (Al), have naturally triggered considerable attention.4Xu J. Dou Y. Wei Z. Ma J. Deng Y. Li Y. Liu H. Dou S. Recent progress in graphite intercalation compounds for rechargeable metal (Li, Na, K, Al)-ion batteries.Adv. Sci. 2017; 4: 1700146Crossref Scopus (327) Google Scholar Among these, Na-ion storage shares similar electrochemical principles to the Li counterparts but with relatively lower energy capacity because of the larger atomic size and higher redox potential. Combined with the high abundance and low cost of Na minerals, Na-ion-based batteries could be a cost-effective alternative, in which weight and energy density are minor factors.5Nayak P.K. Yang L. Brehm W. Adelhelm P. From lithium-ion to sodium-ion batteries: advantages, challenges, and surprises.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2018; 57: 102-120Crossref PubMed Scopus (1093) Google Scholar The conventional sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are still at the research stage and not ready for commercialization due to the lack of effective anodes and cathodes, which render SIBs with a very low specific energy of 150 Wh kg−1, only about half of that for LIBs.6Hwang J.Y. Myung S.T. Sun Y.K. Sodium-ion batteries: present and future.Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017; 46: 3529-3614Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 7Fang Y. Yu X.Y. Lou X.W.D. A practical high-energy cathode for sodium-ion batteries based on uniform P2-Na0.7CoO2 microspheres.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2017; 56: 5801-5805Crossref PubMed Scopus (166) Google Scholar, 8Wang Y.X. Yang J. Chou S.L. Liu H.K. Zhang W.X. Zhao D. Dou S.X. Uniform yolk-shell iron sulfide–carbon nanospheres for superior sodium–iron sulfide batteries.Nat. Commun. 2015; 6: 8689Crossref PubMed Scopus (338) Google Scholar A new high-energy battery concept, sodium-metal batteries (SMBs), is brought out.9Zhao Y. Adair K.R. Sun X. Recent developments and insights into the understanding of Na metal anodes for Na-metal batteries.Energy Environ. Sci. 2018; 11: 2673-2695Crossref Google Scholar In this system, Na metal is directly utilized as an extremely appealing anode due to its higher specific capacity (1,160 mAh g−1) and the lowest redox potential (−2.714 V versus standard hydrogen electrode [SHE]). For cathode candidates, abundant oxygen (O2), greenhouse gas (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), or sulfur (S) hold great promise because of super-high theoretical energy densities (Figure 1). Four types of SMBs, including Na-O2, Na-CO2, Na-SO2, and room-temperature Na-S (RT-Na/S) batteries, share similar cell configurations by pairing metallic Na anodes with alternative gaseous O2, CO2, SO2, or solid S cathodes. Technically, these cathodes can only show high electroactivity when accommodated in porous conductive cathode hosts, which do not participate in the electrochemical reactions but serve as the charge-mass-transfer media and containers for O2, CO2, SO2, and S active materials. These SMBs are very attractive because of their low cost and ultrahigh theoretical specific energy (Na + O2 ↔ NaO2, 1,108 Wh kg−1; 4Na + 3CO2 ↔ Na2CO3 + C, 1,876 Wh kg−1; 2Na + 2SO2 ↔ Na2S2O4, 863 Wh kg−1; and 2Na + S ↔ Na2S, 1,273 Wh kg−1). Nevertheless, they are still in their infancy and face a number of problems in terms of low reaction kinetics, high overpotential, poor cycling performance, complex reaction mechanisms, and serious safety issues due to the utilization of pure Na metal and liquid electrolyte. In this review, we focus on the working principles of representative SMBs, including Na-O2, Na-CO2, Na-SO2, and RT-Na/S batteries, as well as discuss the impacts of the main components of these batteries. The significant achievements toward Na-storage mechanisms and performance enhancement are summarized. Moreover, metallic Na anode plays a critical role in electrochemical performance for all these battery systems. We pay special attention to understanding the dendrite formation and optimizing strategies of metallic Na. Future research directions and strategies toward better SMBs also are provided. Unlike Li2O2, which is the only discharge product in Li-O2 batteries, stable superoxides (NaO2) could be produced and compete with the formation of peroxides (Na2O2) during discharge for Na-O2 batteries. The formation of NaO2 is thermodynamically and kinetically preferred on the basis of one-electron transfer, leading to a theoretical energy density of 1,108 Wh kg−1.10Hartmann P. Bender C.L. Vračar M. Dürr A.K. Garsuch A. Janek J. Adelhelm P. A rechargeable room-temperature sodium superoxide (NaO2) battery.Nat. Mater. 2013; 12: 228-232Crossref PubMed Scopus (623) Google Scholar Both Na2O2 and NaO2 have been proven to be possible discharge products in Na-O2 batteries. Sun et al. first introduced rechargeable Na-O2 batteries with an electrolyte of NaPF6 in ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) (EC/DMC); the batteries showed large overpotential and poor reversibility (<10 cycles) with Na2O2 as the major discharge product. In addition, Na2CO3 and NaOCO-R species were formed by the electrolyte decomposition.11Sun Q. Yang Y. Fu Z.-W. Electrochemical properties of room temperature sodium–air batteries with non-aqueous electrolyte.Electrochem. Commun. 2012; 16: 22-25Crossref Scopus (143) Google Scholar Hartmann et al. found that solid NaO2 could be exclusively and reversibly formed as a crystalline product in an ether-based electrolyte, leading to much lower charge overpotential and higher rechargeability.10Hartmann P. Bender C.L. Vračar M. Dürr A.K. Garsuch A. Janek J. Adelhelm P. A rechargeable room-temperature sodium superoxide (NaO2) battery.Nat. Mater. 2013; 12: 228-232Crossref PubMed Scopus (623) Google Scholar Kang et al. theoretically deduced that NaO2 was prone to present in nanoscale and was easy to nucleate because of its low surface energy.12Kang S. Mo Y. Ong S.P. Ceder G. Nanoscale stabilization of sodium oxides: implications for Na-O2 batteries.Nano Lett. 2014; 14: 1016-1020Crossref PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar Sun et al. summarized the significant influence of the cathode and electrolyte on reaction pathways in a review.13Sun B. Pompe C. Dongmo S. Zhang J. Kretschmer K. Schröder D. Janek J. Wang G. Challenges for developing rechargeable room-temperature sodium oxygen batteries.Adv. Mater. Technol. 2018; 3: 1800110Crossref Scopus (31) Google Scholar They found that the different carbon-based cathode materials,10Hartmann P. Bender C.L. Vračar M. Dürr A.K. Garsuch A. Janek J. Adelhelm P. A rechargeable room-temperature sodium superoxide (NaO2) battery.Nat. Mater. 2013; 12: 228-232Crossref PubMed Scopus (623) Google Scholar, 14Xia C. Black R. Fernandes R. Adams B. Nazar L.F. The critical role of phase-transfer catalysis in aprotic sodium oxygen batteries.Nat. Chem. 2015; 7: 496-501Crossref PubMed Scopus (239) Google Scholar, 15Sun B. Kretschmer K. Xie X. Munroe P. Peng Z. Wang G. Hierarchical porous carbon spheres for high-performance Na-O2 batteries.Adv. Mater. 2017; 29: 28374959Crossref Scopus (72) Google Scholar, 16Enterría M. Botas C. Gómez-Urbano J.L. Acebedo B. López del Amo J.M.L. Carriazo D. Rojo T. Ortiz-Vitoriano N. Pathways towards high performance Na-O2 batteries: tailoring graphene aerogel cathode porosity & nanostructure.J. Mater. Chem. A. 2018; 6: 20778-20787Crossref Google Scholar addition of catalysts,17Aldous I.M. Hardwick L.J. Solvent-mediated control of the electrochemical discharge products of non-aqueous sodium-oxygen electrochemistry.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016; 55: 8254-8257Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar, 18Sun Q. Liu J. Li X. Wang B. Yadegari H. Lushington A. Banis M.N. Zhao Y. Xiao W. Chen N. et al.Atomic layer deposited non-noble metal oxide catalyst for sodium-air batteries: tuning the morphologies and compositions of discharge product.Adv. Funct. Mater. 2017; 27: 1606662Crossref Scopus (30) Google Scholar, 19Ma L. Zhang D. Lei Y. Yuan Y. Wu T. Lu J. Amine K. High-capacity sodium peroxide based Na-O2 batteries with low charge overpotential via a nanostructured catalytic cathode.ACS Energy Lett. 2018; 3: 276-277Crossref Scopus (11) Google Scholar and selection of electrolytes10Hartmann P. Bender C.L. Vračar M. Dürr A.K. Garsuch A. Janek J. Adelhelm P. A rechargeable room-temperature sodium superoxide (NaO2) battery.Nat. Mater. 2013; 12: 228-232Crossref PubMed Scopus (623) Google Scholar, 11Sun Q. Yang Y. Fu Z.-W. Electrochemical properties of room temperature sodium–air batteries with non-aqueous electrolyte.Electrochem. Commun. 2012; 16: 22-25Crossref Scopus (143) Google Scholar, 17Aldous I.M. Hardwick L.J. Solvent-mediated control of the electrochemical discharge products of non-aqueous sodium-oxygen electrochemistry.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016; 55: 8254-8257Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar, 20He M. Lau K.C. Ren X. Xiao N. McCulloch W.D. Curtiss L.A. Wu Y. Concentrated electrolyte for the sodium–oxygen battery: solvation structure and improved cycle life.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016; 55: 15310-15314Crossref PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar, 21Yin W.W. Shadike Z. Yang Y. Ding F. Sang L. Li H. Fu Z.W. A long-life Na–air battery based on a soluble NaI catalyst.Chem. Commun. 2015; 51: 2324-2327Crossref PubMed Google Scholar played critical roles in the selection of reaction pathways and growth mechanism of discharge products. Until now, it has remained unclear how to determine the critical experiment parameters for controlling the reaction pathways. Two mechanisms for NaO2 crystal growth have been proposed. One hypothesis is that NaO2 precipitation continuously grows via direct oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the surface of the growing nuclei. Another suggestion is that NaO2 cubes are formed by migrating O2− intermediates through the liquid electrolyte. Nazar’s group14Xia C. Black R. Fernandes R. Adams B. Nazar L.F. The critical role of phase-transfer catalysis in aprotic sodium oxygen batteries.Nat. Chem. 2015; 7: 496-501Crossref PubMed Scopus (239) Google Scholar confirmed that O2 was reduced at the surface to form O2− during the ORR process, which reacted with trace water to form soluble HO2. Followed by metathesis with Na+, cubic NaO2 could nucleate and crystallize growth from solution by a phase-transfer catalyst. The reversible process took place during oxygen evolution reaction (OER). This result implied the formation of NaO2 cubes underwent a solution-mediated mechanism, in which the dissolution of O2− intermediates determined NaO2 precipitation (Figure 2A). Furthermore, Carrasco and coworkers theoretically suggested the involved ORR should occur at the surface of the air electrode instead of NaO2 particles, mainly because of the insulating property for NaO2.22Arcelus O. Li C. Rojo T.f. Carrasco J. Electronic structure of sodium superoxide bulk,(100) surface, and clusters using hybrid density functional: relevance for Na-O2 batteries.J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015; 6: 2027-2031Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar Even though the solution-mediated mechanism was proved, the formation and decomposition of NaO2 particles still remain unclear. Shao-Horn and coworkers suggested that the NaO2 particle size and distributions depended on the concentration and the diffusion of the reduced O2− species in the electrolyte. As shown in Figure 3A, when tested at a low current rate (10 mA g−1), NaO2 cubes were formed with a smaller size (50–500 nm) and were found all over the carbon nanotube (CNT) carpet. In contrast, much larger micron-scale (∼2 μm) cubes were dispersed on the top and bottom of the CNT carpet at a higher current of 1,000 mA g−1, which was due to higher O2 availability at a high current.23Ortiz-Vitoriano N. Batcho T.P. Kwabi D.G. Han B. Pour N. Yao K.P.C. Thompson C.V. Shao-Horn Y. Rate-dependent nucleation and growth of NaO2 in Na-O2 batteries.J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015; 6: 2636-2643Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar Meanwhile, McCloskey’s group also found that crystal growth of NaO2 occurred via a diffusion-nucleation and growth mechanism. Accordingly, low current rate (88 μA cm−1) resulted in the formation of large NaO2 crystals. The formation process was divided into three steps: the reduction of O2 to NaO2(I), the dissolution and diffusion of O2−, and the nucleation and growth of Na cubes (II). The similar three-step process occurred at high current, but the step (I) proceeded much faster than the following two steps, leading to smaller particle size and more fraction of NaO2 deposited as a thin film (Figure 3B).24Nichols J.E. McCloskey B.D. The sudden death phenomena in nonaqueous Na-O2 batteries.J. Phys. Chem. C. 2017; 121: 85-96Crossref Scopus (38) Google Scholar Sun et al. investigated the influence of surface characteristics of the O2 hosts on the NaO2 growth mechanisms. Based on the solution-mediated growth mechanism, Figure 3C shows that doping with O2-containing functional groups enabled hydrophilic air electrode, resulting in the formation of a conformal NaO2 thin film during discharge. On a hydrophobic O2 electrode, crystalline NaO2 cubes were produced instead.25Yadegari H. Franko C.J. Banis M.N. Sun Q. Li R. Goward G.R. Sun X. How to control the discharge products in Na-O2 cells: direct evidence toward the role of functional groups at the air electrode surface.J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017; 8: 4794-4800Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar As expected, the surface modification of O2 cathode materials and the induction of protic additives with high donor numbers in the electrolyte could affect the solubility of O2− in the liquid electrolyte, thereby altering the discharge mechanism. During the charging process, the reverse decomposition of NaO2 crystals occurred along with the dissolution of superoxide anions, but theoretically, the electronic conductivity of NaO2 was too low to proceed direct electrochemical growth and dissolution. Harmann et al. found that the charge process was ascribed to the solubility of NaO2 in the liquid electrolyte via a solution-precipitation route.26Hartmann P. Heinemann M. Bender C.L. Graf K. Baumann R.-P. Adelhelm P. Heiliger C. Janek J.R. Discharge and charge reaction paths in sodium–oxygen batteries: does NaO2 form by direct electrochemical growth or by precipitation from solution?.J. Phys. Chem. C. 2015; 119: 22778-22786Crossref Scopus (87) Google Scholar As discussed above in Figure 2B, Nazar’s group exploited protons as a redox mediator (RM) to enhance the kinetics of NaO2 dissolution via forming HO2 as a soluble compound and also as carriers to continuously transport the superoxide from the cathode surface to the solution phase.14Xia C. Black R. Fernandes R. Adams B. Nazar L.F. The critical role of phase-transfer catalysis in aprotic sodium oxygen batteries.Nat. Chem. 2015; 7: 496-501Crossref PubMed Scopus (239) Google Scholar The cathode hosts do not participate in the electrochemical reaction of the cell but play critical roles in the morphology and composition of the discharge products because they regulate the reaction intermediates. Bender et al. observed the surface structure and chemistry of various carbon cathodes on product control. Ketjenblack, GDL H2315, HSAG 500, Super PLi, SFG-44, and SCR-1 were utilized, which covered a wide range of carbons with different surface areas, particle sizes, shapes, and surface chemistry. As shown in Figure 4A, different carbon materials showed appreciable differences in the maximum capacity and voltage profiles. However, they did not observe a different reaction pathway with NaO2 as the same discharge product when using different carbon cathodes with the same cell setup and gas supply.27Bender C.L. Hartmann P. Vračar M. Adelhelm P. Janek J. On the thermodynamics, the role of the carbon cathode, and the cycle life of the sodium superoxide (NaO2) battery.Adv. Energy Mater. 2014; 4: 1301863Crossref Scopus (155) Google Scholar Moreover, catalysts can significantly contribute to enhanced battery performance. Heteroatom doping, such as N-doped graphene nanosheets, can exhibit doubled capacity, enhanced cycling stability, and higher rate capability than pristine graphene nanosheets.28Li Y. Yadegari H. Li X. Banis M.N. Li R. Sun X. Superior catalytic activity of nitrogen-doped graphene cathodes for high energy capacity sodium-air batteries.Chem. Commun. 2013; 49: 11731-11733Crossref PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar Noble-metal Pt nanoparticles decoration on graphene nanosheets led to superior cycling performance toward the formation of Na carbonate.29Zhang S. Wen Z. Rui K. Shen C. Lu Y. Yang J. Graphene nanosheets loaded with Pt nanoparticles with enhanced electrochemical performance for sodium–oxygen batteries.J. Mater. Chem. A. 2015; 3: 2568-2571Crossref Google Scholar Similarly, silver nanoparticles decorated reduced graphene oxides and cobalt nanoparticles embedded in N-doped carbon fibers (CFs) showed enhanced catalytic activity for cathode reactions as well.30Kumar S. Kishore B. Munichandraiah N. Electrochemical studies of non-aqueous Na-O2 cells employing Ag-RGO as the bifunctional catalyst.RSC Adv. 2016; 6: 63477-63479Crossref Google Scholar, 31Ma J.-L. Meng F.-L. Xu D. Zhang X.-B. Co-embedded N-doped carbon fibers as highly efficient and binder-free cathode for Na-O2 batteries.Energy Storage Mater. 2017; 6: 1-8Crossref Scopus (47) Google Scholar Furthermore, transition-metal-oxide catalysts, such as NiCo2O4,32Liu W.-M. Yin W.-W. Ding F. Sang L. Fu Z.-W. NiCo2O4 nanosheets supported on Ni foam for rechargeable nonaqueous sodium–air batteries.Electrochem. Commun. 2014; 45: 87-90Crossref Scopus (66) Google Scholar MnOx,33Wang Y. Liang Z. Zou Q. Cong G. Lu Y.-C. Mechanistic insights into catalyst-assisted nonaqueous oxygen evolution reaction in lithium-oxygen batteries.J. Phys. Chem. C. 2016; 120: 6459-6466Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar a-MnO2,34Rosenberg S. Hintennach A. In situ formation of α-MnO2 nanowires as catalyst for sodium-air batteries.J. Power Sources. 2015; 274: 1043-1048Crossref Scopus (27) Google Scholar and CaMnO3,35Hu Y. Han X. Zhao Q. Du J. Cheng F. Chen J. Porous perovskite calcium–manganese oxide microspheres as an efficient catalyst for rechargeable sodium–oxygen batteries.J. Mater. Chem. A. 2015; 3: 3320-3324Crossref Google Scholar were adopted in Na-O2 batteries, which tend to show comparable capacity to that of typical carbon materials but very different reaction pathways and product morphologies. This type of catalyst is active for the stabilization of the O2− intermediates at the electrode surface, thus leading to the morphology variations. Sun’s group detected a higher content of O2-rich products on the surface of mesoporous Mn3O4 decorated with Pd nanoclusters, in which mesoporous Mn3O4 served as an ORR catalyst, and atomic layer deposition (ALD) Pd served as an OER catalyst (Figure 4B).36Yadegari H. Norouzi Banis M.N. Lushington A. Sun Q. Li R. Sham T.-K. Sun X. A bifunctional solid state catalyst with enhanced cycling stability for Na and Li-O2 cells: Revealing the role of solid state catalysts.Energy Environ. Sci. 2017; 10: 286-295Crossref Google Scholar On the other hand, catalysts are involved in affecting the reaction intermediates. For instance, a Au catalyst surface possessed high affinity toward O2/O2− and resulted in the formation of a Na2O conformal film via a surface-mediated growth mechanism. In addition, the Coulombic efficiency (CE) is likely to be enhanced by high-surface-energy catalysts, which could reduce the O2− crossover toward the separator and negative electrode (Figure 4C).37Lutz L. Corte D.A.D. Chen Y. Batuk D. Johnson L.R. Abakumov A. Yate L. Azaceta E. Bruce P.G. Tarascon J.M. et al.The role of the electrode surface in Na–air batteries: insights in electrochemical product formation and chemical growth of NaO2.Adv. Energy Mater. 2018; 8: 1701581Crossref Scopus (23) Google Scholar Yin et al. reported that ferrocene or NaI worked as the RM in organic electrolytes, which facilitated the decomposition of discharge products and reduced the overpotentials of Na/O2 batteries.21Yin W.W. Shadike Z. Yang Y. Ding F. Sang L. Li H. Fu Z.W. A long-life Na–air battery based on a soluble NaI catalyst.Chem. Commun. 2015; 51: 2324-2327Crossref PubMed Google Scholar The current research suggests the catalysts in Li-O2 batteries are generally functional in Na-O2 batteries. Thus, catalysts for Na-O2 systems could be inspired by the available catalysts adopted in Li-O2 batteries. Carbonate-based electrolytes, ether-based electrolytes, and sulfone-based electrolytes can be used in Na-O2 batteries.10Hartmann P. Bender C.L. Vračar M. Dürr A.K. Garsuch A. Janek J. Adelhelm P. A rechargeable room-temperature sodium superoxide (NaO2) battery.Nat. Mater. 2013; 12: 228-232Crossref PubMed Scopus (623) Google Scholar, 11Sun Q. Yang Y. Fu Z.-W. Electrochemical properties of room temperature sodium–air batteries with non-aqueous electrolyte.Electrochem. Commun. 2012; 16: 22-25Crossref Scopus (143) Google Scholar, 17Aldous I.M. Hardwick L.J. Solvent-mediated control of the electrochemical discharge products of non-aqueous sodium-oxygen electrochemistry.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016; 55: 8254-8257Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar, 20He M. Lau K.C. Ren X. Xiao N. McCulloch W.D. Curtiss L.A. Wu Y. Concentrated electrolyte for the sodium–oxygen battery: solvation structure and improved cycle life.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016; 55: 15310-15314Crossref PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar, 21Yin W.W. Shadike Z. Yang Y. Ding F. Sang L. Li H. Fu Z.W. A long-life Na–air battery based on a soluble NaI catalyst.Chem. Commun. 2015; 51: 2324-2327Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 38Abate I.I. Thompson L.E. Kim H.C. Aetukuri N.B. Robust NaO2 electrochemistry in aprotic Na-O2 batteries employing ethereal electrolytes with a protic additive.J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2016; 7: 2164-2169Crossref PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar, 39Kim J. Lim H.D. Gwon H. Kang K. Sodium–oxygen batteries with alkyl-carbonate and ether based electrolytes.Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2013; 15: 3623-3629Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar The electrolyte selection is vital to determine the overall surface discharge products.17Aldous I.M. Hardwick L.J. Solvent-mediated control of the electrochemical discharge products of non-aqueous sodium-oxygen electrochemistry.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016; 55: 8254-8257Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar Kim et al. observed Na2CO3 as a discharge product in a carbonate-based electrolyte, which was changed to Na2O2 when ether-based electrolyte was utilized.39Kim J. Lim H.D. Gwon H. Kang K. Sodium–oxygen batteries with alkyl-carbonate and ether based electrolytes.Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2013; 15: 3623-3629Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar Ether-based electrolyte is currently the most popular electrolyte system, which is more stable against superoxide intermediates and radicals with lower vapor pressure in contrast to carbonate-based electrolytes.40Black R. Shyamsunder A. Adeli P. Kundu D. Murphy G.K. Nazar L.F. The nature and impact of side reactions in glyme-based sodium–oxygen batteries.ChemSusChem. 2016; 9: 1795-1803Crossref PubMed Scopus (66) Google Scholar Furthermore, ether-based electrolytes are highly suitable when carbonaceous hosts are adopted in Na-O2 batteries. However, the discharge products in ether-based electrolytes are very dependent on the cell setups and gas supply and especially sensitive to humidity and weak acid.14Xia C. Black R. Fernandes R. Adams B. Nazar L.F. The critical role of phase-transfer catalysis in aprotic sodium oxygen batteries.Nat. Chem. 2015; 7: 496-501Crossref PubMed Scopus (239) Google Scholar, 40Black R. Shyamsunder A. Adeli P. Kundu D. Murphy G.K. Nazar L.F. The nature and impact of side reactions in glyme-based sodium–oxygen batteries.ChemSusChem. 2016; 9: 1795-1803Crossref PubMed Scopus (66) Google Scholar, 41Bi X. Wang R. Ma L. Zhang D. Amine K. Lu J. Sodium peroxide dihydrate or sodium superoxide: the importance of the cell configuration for sodium–oxygen batteries.Small Methods. 2017; 1: 1700102Crossref Google Scholar A sulfone-based electrolyte, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), possesses favorable advantages in terms of low volatility, low viscosity, high conductivity, high polarity, and a relatively wide electrochemical window.42Xu D. Wang Z.L. Xu J.J. Zhang L.L. Zhang X.B. Novel DMSO-based electrolyte for high performance rechargeable Li–O2 batteries.Chem. Commun. 2012; 48: 6948-6950Crossref PubMed Scopus (258) Google Scholar Unfortunately, the Na anode could react with DMSO. Wu and coworkers realized the high stability of Na metal in DMSO by utilizing the concept of a super-concentrated electrolyte, in which the concentration of NaN(SO2CF3)2 (NaTFSI)/DMSO solutions exceeded 3 M. The high stability of Na was ascribed to the reduced amount of free DMSO in the electrolyte. With 3.2 M NaTFSI/DMSO, the Na-O2 batteries delivered a stable cycling lifespan over 150 cycles.20He M. Lau K.C. Ren X. Xiao N. McCulloch W.D. Curtiss L.A. Wu Y. Concentrated electrolyte for the sodium–oxygen battery: solvation structure and improved cycle life.Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016; 55: 15310-15314Crossref PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar The atmospheric CO2 concentration is constantly growing along with the continuous increasing consumption of fossil fuels. CO2 capture is an important research field by capturing fossil" @default.
• W2950898064 created "2019-06-27" @default.
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• W2950898064 date "2019-10-01" @default.
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• W2950898064 title "Developments and Perspectives on Emerging High-Energy-Density Sodium-Metal Batteries" @default.
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