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• W2975912708 abstract "The light-collecting surfaces of solar power systems cover areas of more than 3,000 km2 worldwide, with PV modules accounting for the majority. An often-neglected problem is the contamination of these surfaces, so-called “soiling,” which leads to significantly reduced energy yields, especially in high-insolation arid and semi-arid climates. Indeed, an inadequate soiling mitigation strategy in high solar-potential and soiling-prone locations such as China, India, or the Middle East can cancel out in few weeks the impressive progress in solar cell and CSP efficiency made in recent decades. Currently, there is no one-solution-fits-all to the problem of soiling due to its site-specific and seasonal variability, differences in local energy costs, and the availability and costs of resources required for cleaning, such as water or labor. Indeed, frequent cleaning can increase the energy generation costs and water consumption dramatically, leading to a need for water-less and inexpensive soiling mitigation technologies. Our analysis indicates that in addition to optimized cleaning plans, automated cleaning machines, anti-soiling coatings, tracking system modifications, PV module design, improved soiling monitoring, and site adaption can be economically feasible and effective solutions to reduce the negative impact of soiling. Other technologies like electrodynamic screens or dew mitigation need further research and development to improve functionality and become economically relevant for large-scale application. Soiling consists of the deposition of contaminants onto photovoltaic (PV) modules or mirrors and tubes of concentrated solar power systems (CSPs). It often results in a drastic reduction of power generation, which potentially renders an installation economically unviable and therefore must be mitigated. On the other hand, the corresponding costs for cleaning can significantly increase the price of energy generated. In this work, the importance of soiling is assessed for the global PV and CSP key markets. Even in optimized cleaning scenarios, soiling reduces the current global solar power production by at least 3%–4%, with at least 3–5 billion € annual revenue losses, which could rise to 4%–7%, and more than 4–7 billion € losses, in 2023. Therefore, taking into account the underlying physics of natural soiling processes and the regional cleaning costs, a techno-economic assessment of current and proposed soiling mitigation strategies such as innovative coating materials is presented. Accordingly, the research and development needs and challenges in addressing soiling are discussed. Soiling consists of the deposition of contaminants onto photovoltaic (PV) modules or mirrors and tubes of concentrated solar power systems (CSPs). It often results in a drastic reduction of power generation, which potentially renders an installation economically unviable and therefore must be mitigated. On the other hand, the corresponding costs for cleaning can significantly increase the price of energy generated. In this work, the importance of soiling is assessed for the global PV and CSP key markets. Even in optimized cleaning scenarios, soiling reduces the current global solar power production by at least 3%–4%, with at least 3–5 billion € annual revenue losses, which could rise to 4%–7%, and more than 4–7 billion € losses, in 2023. Therefore, taking into account the underlying physics of natural soiling processes and the regional cleaning costs, a techno-economic assessment of current and proposed soiling mitigation strategies such as innovative coating materials is presented. Accordingly, the research and development needs and challenges in addressing soiling are discussed. Soiling can easily cause more than 1% power loss per day1Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Fundamentals of soiling processes on photovoltaic modules.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 98: 239-254Crossref Scopus (138) Google Scholar, 2Sarver T. Al-Qaraghuli A. Kazmerski L.L. A comprehensive review of the impact of dust on the use of solar energy: history, investigations, results, literature, and mitigation approaches.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013; 22: 698-733Crossref Scopus (613) Google Scholar, 3Costa S.C.S. Diniz A.S.A.C. Kazmerski L.L. Solar energy dust and soiling R&D progress. Literature review update for 2016.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017/2018; 82: 2504-2536Crossref Scopus (111) Google Scholar, 4Costa S.C.S. Diniz A.S.A.C. Kazmerski L.L. Dust and soiling issues and impacts relating to solar energy systems. Literature review update for 2012–2015.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016; 63: 33-61Crossref Scopus (176) Google Scholar and is a site-specific phenomenon, strongly influenced by local climatic conditions.1Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Fundamentals of soiling processes on photovoltaic modules.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 98: 239-254Crossref Scopus (138) Google Scholar, 5Micheli L. Deceglie M.G. Muller M. Mapping photovoltaic soiling using spatial interpolation techniques.IEEE J. Photovoltaics. 2019; 9: 272-277Crossref Scopus (17) Google Scholar, 6Micheli L. Muller M. An investigation of the key parameters for predicting PV soiling losses.Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2017; 25: 291-307Crossref Scopus (97) Google Scholar, 7Micheli L. Deceglie M.G. Muller M. Predicting photovoltaic soiling losses using environmental parameters. An update.Prog. Photovolt Res. Appl. 2018; 8: 547Google Scholar, 8Bergin M.H. Ghoroi C. Dixit D. Schauer J.J. Shindell D.T. Large reductions in solar energy production due to dust and particulate air pollution.Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2017; 4: 339-344Crossref Scopus (123) Google Scholar, 9You S. Lim Y.J. Dai Y. Wang C.-H. On the temporal modelling of solar photovoltaic soiling. Energy and economic impacts in seven cities.Appl. Energy. 2018; 228: 1136-1146Crossref Scopus (50) Google Scholar, 10Javed W. Guo B. Figgis B. Modeling of photovoltaic soiling loss as a function of environmental variables.Sol. Energy. 2017; 157: 397-407Crossref Scopus (106) Google Scholar, 11Coello M. Boyle L. Simple model for predicting time series soiling of photovoltaic panels.IEEE J. Photovoltaics. 2019; 9: 1382-1387Crossref Scopus (33) Google Scholar The predominant type of contamination could change considerably depending on the location: mineral dust deposits1Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Fundamentals of soiling processes on photovoltaic modules.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 98: 239-254Crossref Scopus (138) Google Scholar (Figure 1A), bird droppings (Figure 1B), biofilms of bacteria, algae, lichen, mosses, or fungi12Martin-Sanchez P.M. Gebhardt C. Toepel J. Barry J. Munzke N. Günster J. Gorbushina A.A. Monitoring microbial soiling in photovoltaic systems. A qPCR-based approach.Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2018; 129: 13-22Crossref Scopus (14) Google Scholar, 13Einhorn A. Micheli L. Miller D.C. Simpson L.J. Moutinho H.R. To B. Lanaghan C.L. Muller M.T. Toth S. John J.J. et al.Evaluation of soiling and potential mitigation approaches on photovoltaic glass.IEEE J. Photovoltaics. 2019; 9: 233-239Crossref Scopus (33) Google Scholar, 14Shirakawa M.A. Zilles R. Mocelin A. Gaylarde C.C. Gorbushina A. Heidrich G. Giudice M.C. Del Negro G.M.B. John V.M. Microbial colonization affects the efficiency of photovoltaic panels in a tropical environment.J. Environ. Manage. 2015; 157: 160-167Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar (Figure 1C), plant debris or pollen15Conceição R. Silva H. Mirão J. Collares-Pereira M. Organic soiling. The role of pollen in PV module performance degradation.Energies. 2018; 11: 294Crossref Scopus (26) Google Scholar (Figure 1D), engine exhausts or industry emissions (Figure 1E), and agricultural emissions such as feed dusts (Figure 1F). For PV modules, soiling on the front glass mainly results in optical losses due to light absorption or backward scattering,2Sarver T. Al-Qaraghuli A. Kazmerski L.L. A comprehensive review of the impact of dust on the use of solar energy: history, investigations, results, literature, and mitigation approaches.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013; 22: 698-733Crossref Scopus (613) Google Scholar, 16Piedra P. Moosmüller H. Optical losses of photovoltaic cells due to aerosol deposition. Role of particle refractive index and size.Sol. Energy. 2017; 155: 637-646Crossref Scopus (23) Google Scholar depending on the area shaded by soiling particles and also on the dust compositions and particle size distributions.2Sarver T. Al-Qaraghuli A. Kazmerski L.L. A comprehensive review of the impact of dust on the use of solar energy: history, investigations, results, literature, and mitigation approaches.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013; 22: 698-733Crossref Scopus (613) Google Scholar, 8Bergin M.H. Ghoroi C. Dixit D. Schauer J.J. Shindell D.T. Large reductions in solar energy production due to dust and particulate air pollution.Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2017; 4: 339-344Crossref Scopus (123) Google Scholar, 16Piedra P. Moosmüller H. Optical losses of photovoltaic cells due to aerosol deposition. Role of particle refractive index and size.Sol. Energy. 2017; 155: 637-646Crossref Scopus (23) Google Scholar, 17Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Werner M. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Pöllmann H. Bagdahn J. Comprehensive analysis of soiling and cementation processes on PV modules in Qatar.Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells. 2018; 186: 309-323Crossref Scopus (73) Google Scholar Compared to PV, soiling-induced losses are 8–14 times greater for CSP because most of the forward scattered light, which could still generate electricity in PV, does not hit the CSP receiver due to limited collector acceptance angles. Similar applies to concentrator photovoltaics (CPVs), which also use lenses or mirrors. However, as CSP only accounts for about 1.1% of global installed solar power capacity, and CPV being less than 0.1%, the focus of this study is set on conventional PV.18Wüllner J. Steiner M. Wiesenfarth M. Bett A.W. Operation & maintenance – the key for reliable performance in a CPV power plant.AIP Conf. Proc. 2018; 2012: 020011Crossref Scopus (3) Google Scholar, 19International Energy Agency. IEA. RenewablesAnalysis and Forecasts to 2023. OECD Publishing, 2018Crossref Google Scholar, 20IEA PVPS: a snapshot of global PV markets and trend reports. 2019. http://www.iea-pvps.org/fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/IEA-PVPS_T1_35_Snapshot2019-Report.pdf.Google Scholar The physics of dust deposition and adhesion are complex due to the many influencing factors, ranging from weather, site, and system specifications to surface nano-characteristics as well as their time-variability (e.g., diurnal or seasonal weather changes).1Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Fundamentals of soiling processes on photovoltaic modules.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 98: 239-254Crossref Scopus (138) Google Scholar Airborne dust concentration is considered the major determinant of soiling,1Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Fundamentals of soiling processes on photovoltaic modules.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 98: 239-254Crossref Scopus (138) Google Scholar, 6Micheli L. Muller M. An investigation of the key parameters for predicting PV soiling losses.Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2017; 25: 291-307Crossref Scopus (97) Google Scholar, 7Micheli L. Deceglie M.G. Muller M. Predicting photovoltaic soiling losses using environmental parameters. An update.Prog. Photovolt Res. Appl. 2018; 8: 547Google Scholar, 21Pelland, S., Pawar, P., Veeramani, A., Gustafson, W., and Etringer, L.L.A. Testing global models of photovoltaic soiling ratios against field test data worldwide. In IEEE 7th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (WCPEC), pp. 3442–3446.Google Scholar together with rain frequency, as rain is quite effective at cleaning soiled surfaces if sufficiently abundant.1Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Fundamentals of soiling processes on photovoltaic modules.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 98: 239-254Crossref Scopus (138) Google Scholar, 6Micheli L. Muller M. An investigation of the key parameters for predicting PV soiling losses.Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2017; 25: 291-307Crossref Scopus (97) Google Scholar, 22Kimber A. Mitchell L. Nogradi S. Wenger H. The effect of soiling on large grid-connected photovoltaic systems in California and the Southwest region of the United States.in: 2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conference. IEEE, 2006: 2391-2395Crossref Scopus (208) Google Scholar On the other hand, rain can also cause negative effects, e.g., by wet deposition of aerosol particles that have been washed out of the atmosphere.23Merrouni A.A. Wolfertstetter F. Mezrhab A. Wilbert S. Pitz-Paal R. Investigation of soiling effect on different solar mirror materials under Moroccan climate.Energy Procedia. 2015; 69: 1948-1957Crossref Scopus (49) Google Scholar Wind speed is also an important parameter, as it influences the particle deposition mechanisms and rates the balance between deposition and resuspension.24Figgis B. Guo B. Javed W. Ahzi S. Rémond Y. Dominant environmental parameters for dust deposition and resuspension in desert climates.Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2018; 52: 788-798Crossref Scopus (44) Google Scholar, 25Goossens D. van Kerschaever E. Aeolian dust deposition on photovoltaic solar cells: the effects of wind velocity and airborne dust concentration on cell performance.Sol. Energy. 1999; 66: 277-289Crossref Scopus (214) Google Scholar, 26Figgis B. Ennaoui A. Ahzi S. Rémond Y. Review of PV soiling particle mechanics in desert environments.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017; 76: 872-881Crossref Scopus (96) Google Scholar Tilt angle of the PV modules and CSP mirrors should be considered since soiling rates are greater on flatter surfaces.2Sarver T. Al-Qaraghuli A. Kazmerski L.L. A comprehensive review of the impact of dust on the use of solar energy: history, investigations, results, literature, and mitigation approaches.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013; 22: 698-733Crossref Scopus (613) Google Scholar Relative humidity and dew strongly enhance dust adhesion to surfaces through capillary forces, particle caking, and cementation.1Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Fundamentals of soiling processes on photovoltaic modules.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 98: 239-254Crossref Scopus (138) Google Scholar, 17Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Werner M. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Pöllmann H. Bagdahn J. Comprehensive analysis of soiling and cementation processes on PV modules in Qatar.Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells. 2018; 186: 309-323Crossref Scopus (73) Google Scholar, 27Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Khan M.Z. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Dew as a detrimental influencing factor for soiling of PV modules.IEEE J Photovolt. 2019; : 287-290Crossref Scopus (51) Google Scholar, 28Ilse K.K. Rabanal J. Schonleber L. Khan M.Z. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Comparing indoor and outdoor soiling experiments for different glass coatings and microstructural analysis of particle caking processes.IEEE J. Photovoltaics. 2018; 8: 203-209Crossref Scopus (31) Google Scholar These moisture-related adhesion mechanisms are considered important, even in deserts: radiative cooling of the glass surfaces at night allows surfaces to cool below the ambient air temperature. They frequently reach the dew point, and thus, dew precipitates on the collector surfaces.1Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Bagdahn J. Fundamentals of soiling processes on photovoltaic modules.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018; 98: 239-254Crossref Scopus (138) Google Scholar, 27Ilse K.K. Figgis B.W. Khan M.Z. Naumann V. Hagendorf C. Dew as a detrimental influencing factor for soiling of PV modules.IEEE J Photovolt. 2019; : 287-290Crossref Scopus (51) Google Scholar On top of reversible optical losses, soiling can cause permanent degradation of PV modules and mirror materials. In cases of omitted cleaning, cemented dust layers, lichens, and fungi can become practically irremovable, whereas harsh cleaning can lead to the scratching or abrasion of typical anti-reflective coatings (ARCs) or glass corrosion.13Einhorn A. Micheli L. Miller D.C. Simpson L.J. Moutinho H.R. To B. Lanaghan C.L. Muller M.T. Toth S. John J.J. et al.Evaluation of soiling and potential mitigation approaches on photovoltaic glass.IEEE J. Photovoltaics. 2019; 9: 233-239Crossref Scopus (33) Google Scholar, 29Ferretti N. Ilse K. Sönmez A. Hagendorf C. Berghold J. Investigation on the impact of module cleaning on the antireflection coating.in: 32nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition. 2016: 1697-1700Google Scholar, 30Toth S. Muller M. Miller D.C. Moutinho H. To B. Micheli L. Linger J. Engtrakul C. Einhorn A. Simpson L. Soiling and cleaning. Initial observations from 5-year photovoltaic glass coating durability study.Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells. 2018; 185: 375-384Crossref Scopus (42) Google Scholar In addition, mechanical loads during cleaning or thermal shocks when a hot element is cleaned with cold water may lead to breakage of solar cells and glasses or expansion of micro cracks. Further, potential induced degradation (PID) in PV can be enhanced by soiling,31Koehl M. Hoffmann S. Impact of rain and soiling on potential induced degradation.Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2016; 24: 1304-1309Crossref Scopus (24) Google Scholar, 32Hacke, P., Burton, P., Hendrickson, A., Spataru, S., Glick, S., and Terwilliger, K. Effects of photovoltaic module soiling on glass surface resistance and potential-induced degradation. In IEEE 42nd Photovoltaics Special Conference, New Orleans, LA, USA, pp. 1–4.Google Scholar and partial shading due to non-uniform soiling can lead to the formation of hot spots. In CSP, increased dust loads can lead to accelerated degradation of receivers by particle melting, failure of bearings, ball joints, and others. However, within this study, only the optical and corresponding yield losses due to soiling are considered for the investigation of the global impact of soiling. Currently, cleaning is the state-of-the-art to tackle soiling. Cleaning economics also determine the economic viability of other mitigation technologies. Therefore, the techno-economic feasibility of potential technologies is investigated based on an evaluation of their efficiency in soiling loss reduction and potential costs. The most promising available strategies are thus identified and recommendations provided for further research. In order to estimate the global impact and cost of soiling, the optimum between cleaning costs and revenue losses due to soiling between cleaning events was determined for the twenty top PV markets (about 90% of global installed PV capacity in 201833Schmela, M., Beauvais, A., Chevillard, N., Paredes, M.G., Heisz, M., and Rossi, R. Global Market Outlook.Google Scholar) and the global CSP market. Accordingly, an extensive dataset was compiled from literature and interviews with stakeholders, including regional soiling rates (Figure 2B and Tables S1–S3), local cleaning costs (Figure 2C and Table S1), and simulated local energy yields (Figure 2D and Table S4). From these, the optimum number of cleaning cycles per year was calculated for each country (Figure 2E). The calculations were performed considering the reported installed capacity33Schmela, M., Beauvais, A., Chevillard, N., Paredes, M.G., Heisz, M., and Rossi, R. Global Market Outlook.Google Scholar and regional feed-in-tariffs34Jäger-Waldau, A. PV Status Report 2017. EUR 28817 EN; 10.2760/452611 (Publications Office of the European Union).Google Scholar from 2017 to 2018, as well as a medium growth scenario and an average electricity price of 0.03€/kWh for 2023. In addition, the total costs of soiling being the sum of optimized annual cleaning costs and the remaining revenue losses were determined (Figure 2F). Further details of the methodology are provided in the Experimental Procedures and the Supplemental Information. According to the data presented in Figure 2, soiling is estimated to have reduced global solar power production by at least 3%–4% in 2018, causing global revenue losses of at least 3–5 billion €. This conservative estimate does not consider additional costs of non-optimized PV cleaning schedules (e.g., in residential application) and cleaning rooftop installations (3–8 times costlier than cleaning ground-mounted PV), which accounted for about 29% of global installations in 2018.33Schmela, M., Beauvais, A., Chevillard, N., Paredes, M.G., Heisz, M., and Rossi, R. Global Market Outlook.Google Scholar This assumption is less pronounced for CSP, as this technology is only profitable in large plants where cleaning is typically performed in a more cost-optimized manner. Higher incentives of power purchase agreements that were contracted earlier than 2018 were not taken into consideration. Such projects tended to have higher prices for generated electricity, which would increase the optimum cleaning frequency and the related cleaning expenses. Secondary effects such as increases in loan rates due to the uncertainty of yield forecasts because of the unpredictability of soiling could also have a financial impact but were not evaluated here. Based on the assumptions made, global soiling losses could rise significantly to 4%–7% of annual power production, causing more than 4–7 billion € economic losses by 2023. This development is mainly driven by an increased deployment of PV in high insolation and also in highly soiling-affected regions such as China and India, as well as the mentioned low predicted electricity price, which reduces the incentive for cleaning.35Jäger-Waldau A. Snapshot of photovoltaics − February 2018.EPJ Photovolt. 2018; 9: 6Crossref Scopus (38) Google Scholar, 36Apostoleris H. Sgouridis S. Stefancich M. Chiesa M. Evaluating the factors that led to low-priced solar electricity projects in the Middle East.Nat. Energy. 2018; 3: 1109-1114Crossref Scopus (52) Google Scholar Additional factors that increase the impact of soiling are rising PV module efficiencies and a predicted increasing share of rooftop installations in PV (from about 29% in 2018 up to about 35% in 202333Schmela, M., Beauvais, A., Chevillard, N., Paredes, M.G., Heisz, M., and Rossi, R. Global Market Outlook.Google Scholar). They have not yet been considered in the calculations. Other factors such as improved air quality in some parts of the world37Labordena M. Neubauer D. Folini D. Patt A. Lilliestam J. Blue skies over China: the effect of pollution-control on solar power generation and revenues.PLoS One. 2018; 13: e0207028Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar, 38Boys B.L. Martin R.V. van Donkelaar A. MacDonell R.J. Hsu N.C. Cooper M.J. Yantosca R.M. Lu Z. Streets D.G. Zhang Q. et al.Fifteen-year global time series of satellite-derived fine particulate matter.Environ. Sci. 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Technol. 2018; 52: 11670-11681PubMed Google Scholar could reduce anthropogenic sources of soiling, although air-quality policies typically operate over long time scales. On the other hand, the increase in temperature and the changes associated with climate change might cause a rise in the global soil aridity42Berg A. Findell K. Lintner B. Giannini A. Seneviratne S.I. van den Hurk B. Lorenz R. Pitman A. Hagemann S. Meier A. et al.Land–atmosphere feedbacks amplify aridity increase over land under global warming.Nat. Clim. Change. 2016; 6: 869-874Crossref Scopus (245) Google Scholar and the risk of droughts43Dai A. Increasing drought under global warming in observations and models.Nat. Clim. Change. 2013; 3: 52-58Crossref Scopus (2804) Google Scholar and wildfires, worsening PV and CSP soiling because of the higher concentration of aerosols and the more irregular precipitation patterns. The previous section described the severity of soiling across the solar-energy industry. Here, soiling mitigation and cleaning strategies as reported in various studies and reviews2Sarver T. Al-Qaraghuli A. Kazmerski L.L. A comprehensive review of the impact of dust on the use of solar energy: history, investigations, results, literature, and mitigation approaches.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013; 22: 698-733Crossref Scopus (613) Google Scholar, 44Mondal S. Mondal A.K. Sharma A. Devalla V. Rana S. Kumar S. Pandey J.K. An overview of cleaning and prevention processes for enhancing efficiency of solarphotovoltaic panels.Curr. Sci. 2018; 6: 1065-1077Crossref Scopus (20) Google Scholar, 45Bouaddi S. Fernández-García A. Sansom C. Sarasua J. Wolfertstetter F. Bouzekri H. Sutter F. Azpitarte I. A review of conventional and innovative- sustainable methods for cleaning reflectors in concentrating solar power plants.Sustainability. 2018; 10: 3937Crossref Scopus (29) Google Scholar, 46Jamil W.J. Abdul Rahman H. Shaari S. Salam Z. Performance degradation of photovoltaic power system. Review on mitigation methods.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017; 67: 876-891Crossref Scopus (104) Google Scholar, 47Sayyah A. Horenstein M.N. Mazumder M.K. Energy yield loss caused by dust deposition on photovoltaic panels.Sol. Energy. 2014; 107: 576-604Crossref Scopus (329) Google Scholar, 48Syafiq A. Pandey A.K. Adzman N.N. Rahim N.A. Advances in approaches and methods for self-cleaning of solar photovoltaic panels.Sol. Energy. 2018; 162: 597-619Crossref Scopus (124) Google Scholar, 49Ferretti N. White paper - PV module cleaning. Market overview and basics. PI Photovolatik-Institut Berlin AG, 2018http://www.pi-berlin.com/images/pdf/publication/White%20Paper%20-%20PV%20Module%20Cleaning%20-%20Market%20Overview%20and%20Basics.pdfGoogle Scholar, 50Mesbahi M. White paper - soiling: the science & solutions.https://www.solarplaza.com/channels/asset-management/11893/white-paper-soiling-science-and-solutions/Date: 2018Google Scholar, 51Wolfertstetter F. Wilbert S. Dersch J. Dieckmann S. Pitz-Paal R. Ghennioui A. Integration of soiling-rate measurements and cleaning strategies in yield analysis of parabolic trough plants.J. Sol. Energy Eng. 2018; 140: 41008Crossref Scopus (22) Google Scholar are re-assessed to gain new insights into physical constraints and technology developments. New innovative approaches are suggested and evaluated. So far, no passive anti-soiling technology (e.g., surface coatings) completely eliminates the need for cleaning. Furthermore, there is not a universally recommended cleaning method, as the economics and effectiveness change with local conditions, available resources, and cleaning frequencies. In general, cleaning methods can be categorized into manual, semi-automatic, and fully automatic (Figure 3). A further distinction can be made between dry cleaning technologies on the one hand that are currently only available for PV and not CSP and are mostly applied in regions with water scarcity such as desert environments, and wet cleaning technologies on the other hand, that are generally preferred due to their increased cleaning efficiency and lower damage potential.13Einhorn A. Micheli L. Miller D.C. Simpson L.J. Moutinho H.R. To B. Lanaghan C.L. Muller M.T. Toth S. John J.J. et al.Evaluation of soiling and potential mitigation approaches on photovoltaic glass.IEEE J. Photovoltaics. 2019; 9: 233-239Crossref Scopus (33) Google Scholar Despite this, the fully autonomous cleaning market, which represents only 0.13 % of the current global solar capacity, is expected to grow from about 1.9 GW today to 6.1 GW in 2022,52Gallagher B. Rise of the machines: solar module-washing robots.in: Wood Mackenzie. 2018https://www.woodmac.com/our-expertise/focus/Power–Renewables/rise-of-the-machines-solar-module-washing-robots/Google Scholar thanks to the recent developments of dry, fully automated robots, which can be already integrated into the plant design. There are many factors influencing the decision on optimal cleaning technology, including soiling type and deposition rates, water availability, accessibility of the site, and system configuration (e.g., tracking versus fixed tilt angle, roof versus ground mounted) as well as labor cost, equipment required, and feed-in contract conditions. Efforts are being made to also identify optimal cleaning schedule based on soiling rate detection and weather as well as dust forecasts. Anti-soiling coatings (ASCs), applied to the front glass of PV modules or CSP mirrors, aim to reduce soiling and the demand for cleaning. Ideally, ASCs are highly transparent, anti-reflective, durable, non-toxic, applicable at industrial scale, low cost, and, of course, self-cleaning and are considered as a “holy grail” by the soiling community.2Sarver T. Al-Qaraghuli A. Kazmerski L.L. A comprehensive review of the impact of dust on the use of solar energy: history, investigations, results, literature, and mitigation approaches.Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013; 22: 698-733Crossref Scopus (613) Google Scholar Five dry and wet soiling mechanisms (Figure 4A), esp" @default.
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• W2975912708 title "Techno-Economic Assessment of Soiling Losses and Mitigation Strategies for Solar Power Generation" @default.
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• W2975912708 doi "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.08.019" @default.
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