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• W300183090 abstract "notion, quite foreign to children's thinking. As for the even more obscure adult abstraction of splitting words into sounds, this is obviously flying in the face of all that research tells us about the non-abstract nature of child thought. Therefore, the first experiences of written language need to be in the complete meaningful chunks which fit This content downloaded from 157.55.39.11 on Sun, 17 Apr 2016 06:43:32 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 958 Elementary English the child's concrete experiences of language. These will be phrases and sentences. Then, through provision of appropriate activities which are purposeful and meaningful to the child, we can gradually develop the abstract ideas of word and sound. Such sequence conforms to the appropriate order for the child's natural development of thought. All the research on children's thinking points this way quite conclusively. 6. Learning by discovery is the most effective way to develop children's concepts. Because the nature of children's thought is so qualitatively different from that of adults, teachers and parents often jump to wrong conclusions about the best way to teach children. Adults make the false assumption that children are just miniature people, and all you need to do is give them watered-down version of what works for adults. The researches of Piaget and Vygotsky show how wrong is this notion which many adults have about children's thinking. The most common error made in teaching young children is to think that by telling the child we will be able to modify his thinking, and that, if the child can repeat what he has been told, his thinking or behaviour has been influenced in the desired direction. First of all, there is much research to show that such verbalization is unnecessary. For example, Piaget found that a child is actually not conscious of concepts which he can nevertheless handle when thinking for himself', and that forms evolve more slowly than actual understanding. Yet some teachers behave as if it were the other way around! What is much more serious for our concern is that the expository method of teaching with its emphasis on verbalization actually is' useless or worse than useless for helping children to develop the thought processes for learning the structure of the written language. Research by Eunice Belbin(2) indicates that children's ability to repeat verbal instructions may not be correlated with their behaviour in implementing them. In fact, there is tendency in her results for those children who were better at repeating from memory the road safety instructions to which they had been exposed, to be less likely to implement them, and vice versa . At least, we can have absolute confidence in Vygotsky's conservative conclusion on this question: Direct teaching of concepts is impossible and fruitless. A teacher who tries to do this usually accomplishes nothing but empty verbalism, parrot-like repetition of words by the child, simulating knowledge of the corresponding concepts but actually covering up vacuum. In contrast, the really effective way to modify children's thinking is to follow the natural channels of the child's mental development, i.e. from concrete experience, to the use of generalised idea, and from there finally to verbalization about these operations. This makes the discovery approach essential for early education . Bruner emphasizes that, Mastery of the fundamental ideas of field involves not only the grasping of general principles, but also the development of an attitude toward learning and inquiry, toward guessing and hunches, toward the possibility of solving problems on This content downloaded from 157.55.39.11 on Sun, 17 Apr 2016 06:43:32 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms A Psy cholinguistic Theory for i.t.a. 959 one's own, Vygotsky shows how the early ego-centric language of the child becomes internalised and, as such, constitutes vital factor in creative and intuitive thinking. Bruner adds that to instill such attitudes ... an important ingredient is sense of excitement about discovery . . . discovery of regularities of previously unrecognised relations and similarities between ideas, with resulting sense of selfconfidence in one's abilities. Bruner s statement from psychology brings us full circle to our starting place in the linguistic characteristics of i.t.a. For i.t.a.'s clarification of the structure of English is very well suited to providing children with that important discovery ingredient which Bruner stresses. In i.t.a.'s ie lie к mie tes-creem telling is so obviously unnecessary to bring out the common structural component that we will not be tempted to approach children's thinking the wrong way round. Practical Implications My theory has important implications for the practical use of i.t.a. In particular, it shows the direction for future developments in i.t.a. in two areas: (i) Needed improvements in the i.t.a . alphabet itself . ( ii ) The teaching methods which are most likely to get the best out of i.t.a. 1. Needed improvements in the i.t.a. alphabet. Since i.t.a. gets its results by clarifying the structure of English as the child hears it, we should critically examine i.t.a. to improve this clarification of structure stiU more . For example, the character ue in i.ta. usually represents two consecutive phonemes / у / and /со>/ instead of just one single phoneme, thus spoiling i.t.a.'s general principle of signalling the correct number of phonemes in word. It is just as misleading as letter x in Т.О. A similar reduction in i.t.a.'s effectiveness is caused by the retention of silent letters such as the t in hat(h. Also, as Birnie's(3) linguistic analysis of i.t.a. has shown, i.t.a. still contains many inconsistencies, which, if removed, would clarify the language structure further. For children's writing in particular, there are number of meaningless choice-points in i.t.a. which cause children to hesitate and doubt their own ability to perceive the structure of the language, for example, double consonants, alternatives like c and k, or z and x. Several authors have demanded re-examination of the details of the i.t.a. alphabet to search for possible improvements in the system, for example, Artley(1), Downing(e'7'8'9andll), Griffln(14), Holmes(15), and Zietz(23). Only two writers have indicated their opposition to such improvements in the i.t.a. alphabet; Sir James Pitman(18) and Albert Mazurkiewicz(16). 2. Choosing i.t.a. teaching methods and materials. There are several different methods of teaching i.t.a. and quite large number of alternative sets of i.t.a. materials for educators to select from. Sometimes the differences between published i.t.a. programs are very great. I have described these in number of previous articles, Downing (10, 12, and 13especially 10) Educators who have compared the different i.t.a. series have recognised that important differences in educaThis content downloaded from 157.55.39.11 on Sun, 17 Apr 2016 06:43:32 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 960 Elementary English tional theory are reflected in their design and teaching methodology. For example, although all three were specially written for i.t.a., such programs as the GCRP and the Early to-Read series have teaching methods which are vastly different from the ones developed for the Downing Read-" @default.
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• W300183090 title "A Psycholinguistic Theory for i. t. a." @default.
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