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- W3022233088 endingPage "1285" @default.
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- W3022233088 abstract "Inorganic tin compounds occur naturally in the Earth’s crust. In the environment, tin can be found in both inorganic and organic forms. Inorganic tin compounds are released from natural and anthropogenic sources. The conversion of metallic tin forms to compounds that may be more soluble increases the risk of exposure and toxicity. Organotin compounds in the environment largely originate from anthropogenic activities. However, chemical and biochemical methylation reactions convert inorganic tin compounds into methyltin form. Biomethylation of alkyltins results in the accumulation of more toxic organotin compounds. Tin is not regarded an essential nutrient for humans. However, tin is considered an essential for the growth of rats, with a requirement for tin of between 1 and 2 mg/kg in the diet. Elemental tin, inorganic tin compounds, and long-chain alkyltins are poorly absorbed when ingested, which accounts for their relatively low toxicity. The toxicity of organotin compounds depends on the length of alkyl chain, hydrophobicity, and other physicochemical properties. Hydrophobic organotins are toxic to a wide variety of organisms owing to their high solubility in cell membranes. The alkyl tins are more toxic than the aryl tins, whereas the toxicity of short-chain alkyltin compounds such as trimethyl- and triethyltin is higher than that of long-chain compounds: toxicity increases with number of alkyl groups. The excretory routes of tin compounds may vary depending of the type of compounds and the mode of exposure. Insoluble inorganic tin compounds are largely nontoxic. However, inhalation of tin dust results in its deposition in lungs and may cause “stannosis,” a benign pneumoconiosis. Some tin salts are irritating or can liberate toxic fumes during decomposition. Gastrointestinal absorption of soluble tin salts is only a few percent of the ingested dose. In chronic exposure, tin tends to accumulate in kidney, liver, and bones. Bones comprise a major site of deposition of tin after long-term exposure and intramuscular injection. The biological half-life of tin in bone is approximately 100 days. Exposure to high concentrations of inorganic tin may cause gastrointestinal illness, as well as liver and kidney problems. No noteworthy histopathological observations of nonneoplastic nature were reported in a long-term study. Short-chain alkyls are easily absorbed from gastrointestinal tract. Some alkyltin compounds, particularly tributyltin and triphenyltin, have high toxicity. Chronic exposure to butyltin compounds causes imposex, a pathological condition characterized by development of male sex characteristics in female gastropods. Toxicity of organotins in humans is most frequently reported as loss of memory and seizure, as well as other symptoms including death. Short-chain alkyltin, particularly the trialkyl derivatives, and aromatic tin compounds are neurotoxic. Hydrophobic trimethyltin and triethyltin compounds readily diffuse into richly lipophilic tissues such as brain and cause encephalopathy, cerebral edema, and severe seizures. Tetraalkyltins are enzymatically converted to the trisubstituted form and exert delayed but similar neurotoxic effects. Tributyltin compounds are less toxic than trimethyl- and triethyltins. They may be strongly irritating to the skin in humans. It was reported that shipyard workers exposed to tributyltin oxide developed severe dermatitis, difficulty in breathing, and flu-like symptoms. Trisubstituted organotin derivatives are implicated in hepatotoxicity, immunodeficiency, endocrine disruption, and both reproductive anomalies and infertility in laboratory animals. Monobutyltin and dibutyltin show genotoxicity, while mono- and dimethyltin are not genotoxic. Organotin compounds penetrate the cell membrane and interrupt oxidative phosphorylation, disturb calcium homeostasis, damage mitochondria, and induce apoptosis." @default.
- W3022233088 created "2020-05-13" @default.
- W3022233088 creator A5027956009 @default.
- W3022233088 date "2015-01-01" @default.
- W3022233088 modified "2023-10-01" @default.
- W3022233088 title "Tin" @default.
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