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• W3109374922 abstract "•We profiled changes in the wild chimpanzee gut microbiota over the life course•600+ samples collected over 3 years from 166 individuals aged 8 months to 67 years•Unlike humans, gut microbial diversity in chimpanzees is highest in infancy (<2 years old)•Divergent patterns may reflect interspecific differences in lactation, diet, and immunity Survival in primates is facilitated by commensal gut microbes that ferment otherwise indigestible plant matter, resist colonization by pathogens, and train the developing immune system.1Marques T.M. Wall R. Ross R.P. Fitzgerald G.F. Ryan C.A. Stanton C. Programming infant gut microbiota: influence of dietary and environmental factors.Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2010; 21: 149-156Crossref PubMed Scopus (210) Google Scholar,2Sommer F. Bäckhed F. The gut microbiota--masters of host development and physiology.Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2013; 11: 227-238Crossref PubMed Scopus (1849) Google Scholar However, humans are unique among primates in that we consume highly digestible foods, wean early, mature slowly, and exhibit high lifelong investments in maintenance.3Aiello L.C. Wheeler P. The expensive-tissue hypothesis: the brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution.Curr. Anthropol. 1995; 36: 199-221Crossref Google Scholar, 4Carmody R.N. Wrangham R.W. The energetic significance of cooking.J. Hum. Evol. 2009; 57: 379-391Crossref PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar, 5Kaplan H. Hill K. Lancaster J. Hurtado A.M. A theory of human life history evolution: diet, intelligence, and longevity.Evol. Anthropol. 2000; 9: 156-185Crossref Scopus (1269) Google Scholar, 6Kramer K.L. Ellison P.T. Pooled energy budgets: resituating human energy-allocation trade-offs.Evol. Anthropol. 2010; 19: 136-147Crossref Google Scholar These adaptations suggest that lifetime trajectories of human-microbial relationships could differ from those of our closest living relatives. Here, we profile the gut microbiota of 166 wild chimpanzees aged 8 months to 67 years in the Kibale National Park, Uganda and compare the patterns of gut microbial maturation to those previously observed in humans. We found that chimpanzee gut microbial alpha-diversity, composition, density, interindividual variation, and within-individual change over time varied significantly with age. Notably, gut microbial signatures in infants <2 years old were distinct across all five metrics. Infant chimpanzee guts were enriched in some of the same taxa prevalent in infant humans (e.g., Bifidobacterium, Streptococcus, and Bacteroides), and chimpanzee gut microbial communities, like those of humans, exhibited higher interindividual variation in infancy versus later in life. However, in direct contrast to human infants, chimpanzee infants harbored surprisingly high-diversity rather than low-diversity gut bacterial communities compared with older conspecifics. These data indicate differential trajectories of gut microbiota development in humans and chimpanzees that are consistent with interspecific differences in lactation, diet, and immune function. Probing the phenotypic consequences of differential early-life gut microbial diversity in chimpanzees and other primates will illuminate the life history impacts of the hominid-microbiome partnership. Survival in primates is facilitated by commensal gut microbes that ferment otherwise indigestible plant matter, resist colonization by pathogens, and train the developing immune system.1Marques T.M. Wall R. Ross R.P. Fitzgerald G.F. Ryan C.A. Stanton C. Programming infant gut microbiota: influence of dietary and environmental factors.Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2010; 21: 149-156Crossref PubMed Scopus (210) Google Scholar,2Sommer F. Bäckhed F. The gut microbiota--masters of host development and physiology.Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2013; 11: 227-238Crossref PubMed Scopus (1849) Google Scholar However, humans are unique among primates in that we consume highly digestible foods, wean early, mature slowly, and exhibit high lifelong investments in maintenance.3Aiello L.C. Wheeler P. The expensive-tissue hypothesis: the brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution.Curr. Anthropol. 1995; 36: 199-221Crossref Google Scholar, 4Carmody R.N. Wrangham R.W. The energetic significance of cooking.J. Hum. Evol. 2009; 57: 379-391Crossref PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar, 5Kaplan H. Hill K. Lancaster J. Hurtado A.M. A theory of human life history evolution: diet, intelligence, and longevity.Evol. Anthropol. 2000; 9: 156-185Crossref Scopus (1269) Google Scholar, 6Kramer K.L. Ellison P.T. Pooled energy budgets: resituating human energy-allocation trade-offs.Evol. Anthropol. 2010; 19: 136-147Crossref Google Scholar These adaptations suggest that lifetime trajectories of human-microbial relationships could differ from those of our closest living relatives. Here, we profile the gut microbiota of 166 wild chimpanzees aged 8 months to 67 years in the Kibale National Park, Uganda and compare the patterns of gut microbial maturation to those previously observed in humans. We found that chimpanzee gut microbial alpha-diversity, composition, density, interindividual variation, and within-individual change over time varied significantly with age. Notably, gut microbial signatures in infants <2 years old were distinct across all five metrics. Infant chimpanzee guts were enriched in some of the same taxa prevalent in infant humans (e.g., Bifidobacterium, Streptococcus, and Bacteroides), and chimpanzee gut microbial communities, like those of humans, exhibited higher interindividual variation in infancy versus later in life. However, in direct contrast to human infants, chimpanzee infants harbored surprisingly high-diversity rather than low-diversity gut bacterial communities compared with older conspecifics. These data indicate differential trajectories of gut microbiota development in humans and chimpanzees that are consistent with interspecific differences in lactation, diet, and immune function. Probing the phenotypic consequences of differential early-life gut microbial diversity in chimpanzees and other primates will illuminate the life history impacts of the hominid-microbiome partnership. We collected 618 fresh fecal samples over 3 years from 166 known individuals in two groups of wild chimpanzees (Kanyawara and Ngogo) in the Kibale National Park, Uganda. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, we assessed changes in gut microbial community composition over the chimpanzee life course, focusing on patterns of alpha-diversity (i.e., the community of bacterial taxa within a given sample) and beta-diversity (i.e., differences in gut microbial community membership between individuals or between time points for a given individual). We grouped chimpanzees into 6 age classes (young infant: <2 years old; late infant: 2–5 years old; juvenile: >5–10 years old; adolescent: >10–15 years old; adult: >15–35 years old; post-prime adult: >35 years old) that roughly correspond to behavioral and reproductive milestones.7Bray J. Emery Thompson M. Muller M.N. Wrangham R.W. Machanda Z.P. The development of feeding behavior in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii).Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2018; 165: 34-46Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar Our dataset compares advantageously to previous studies8Moeller A.H. Li Y. Mpoudi Ngole E. Ahuka-Mundeke S. Lonsdorf E.V. Pusey A.E. Peeters M. Hahn B.H. Ochman H. Rapid changes in the gut microbiome during human evolution.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2014; 111: 16431-16435Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar, 9Gomez A. Sharma A.K. Mallott E.K. Petrzelkova K.J. Jost Robinson C.A. Yeoman C.J. Carbonero F. Pafco B. Rothman J.M. Ulanov A. et al.Plasticity in the human gut microbiome defies evolutionary constraints.mSphere. 2019; 4 (e00271–19)Crossref PubMed Scopus (25) Google Scholar, 10Amato K.R. Mallott E.K. McDonald D. Dominy N.J. Goldberg T. Lambert J.E. Swedell L. Metcalf J.L. Gomez A. Britton G.A.O. et al.Convergence of human and Old World monkey gut microbiomes demonstrates the importance of human ecology over phylogeny.Genome Biol. 2019; 20: 201Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar, 11Degnan P.H. Pusey A.E. Lonsdorf E.V. Goodall J. Wroblewski E.E. Wilson M.L. Rudicell R.S. Hahn B.H. Ochman H. Factors associated with the diversification of the gut microbial communities within chimpanzees from Gombe National Park.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2012; 109: 13034-13039Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar, 12Moeller A.H. Foerster S. Wilson M.L. Pusey A.E. Hahn B.H. Ochman H. Social behavior shapes the chimpanzee pan-microbiome.Sci. Adv. 2016; 2: e1500997Crossref PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar in its larger sample, longitudinal tracking of known individuals over multiple years, and sampling over the full range of the chimpanzee lifespan, including nine individuals under 2 years old at Kanyawara. By using 3 years of field collections, we could assess variation among age groups and variability within individuals over time. Because gut microbial maturation in early life has lifelong consequences for aspects of ecology and life history that differ between humans and chimpanzees, we paid special attention to early-life transitions. Gut microbial communities of young infants (<2 years old) were distinct compared to those of other age groups. Within-sample alpha-diversity of microbial amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) varied among age groups, whether measured by observed operational taxonomic unit richness or Shannon index (p < 0.001 and p = 0.016, respectively; likelihood tests of linear mixed effects models; Figure 1), with the highest average values (776.0 ± 44.5; 4.7 ± 0.2) observed in young infants. Post hoc tests confirmed that young infants had significantly higher observed operational taxonomic unit richness and Shannon diversity values than other age groups (p < 0.05; contrast tests for estimated marginal means of linear mixed effects model; Data S1A). Age group had the largest explanatory power of the non-temporal factors considered as possible drivers of divergence in gut microbial communities (p < 0.001; R2 = 0.030; PERMANOVA). Considering only age group effects, we found that there were significant differences between all but two pairwise age group comparisons (p < 0.05; pairwise PERMANOVA test; Data S1B). Significant variation could also be ascribed to group membership (p < 0.001; R2 = 0.021) and sex (p < 0.001; R2 = 0.016), as well as month or year of sampling (p < 0.001; R2 = 0.054 and R2 = 0.053, respectively; Figure S1), as previously observed in chimpanzees at Gombe National Park, Tanzania.11Degnan P.H. Pusey A.E. Lonsdorf E.V. Goodall J. Wroblewski E.E. Wilson M.L. Rudicell R.S. Hahn B.H. Ochman H. Factors associated with the diversification of the gut microbial communities within chimpanzees from Gombe National Park.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2012; 109: 13034-13039Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar A nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination highlights the unique nature of young infant microbiota, in that the youngest chimpanzees were all consistent outliers (Figure 2A). Bray-Curtis distances between the gut microbial communities of adults and other individuals varied by age group (p < 0.001; bootstrapped Kruskal-Wallis test; Figure 2B; Data S1C), with young infants being most dissimilar to adults (p < 0.001; contrast tests for estimated marginal means of linear mixed effects models; Data S1D). Gut microbiota distances between individuals of the same age group also varied across age groups (p < 0.001; bootstrapped Kruskal-Wallis test; Figure 2C; Data S1C), with consistently higher interindividual variation among young infants (p < 0.001; contrast tests for estimated marginal means of linear mixed effects model; Data S1E). Surprisingly, given evidence of human mother to infant vertical transmission of microbes13Ferretti P. Pasolli E. Tett A. Asnicar F. Gorfer V. Fedi S. Armanini F. Truong D.T. Manara S. Zolfo M. et al.Mother-to-infant microbial transmission from different body sites shapes the developing infant gut microbiome.Cell Host Microbe. 2018; 24: 133-145.e5Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (382) Google Scholar,14Asnicar F. Manara S. Zolfo M. Truong D.T. Scholz M. Armanini F. Ferretti P. Gorfer V. Pedrotti A. Tett A. Segata N. Studying vertical microbiome transmission from mothers to infants by strain-level metagenomic profiling.mSystems. 2017; 2: e00164-16Crossref PubMed Scopus (186) Google Scholar and expected dilutions of this signature over time,15Sarkar A. Harty S. Johnson K.V.A. Moeller A.H. Archie E.A. Schell L.D. Carmody R.N. Clutton-Brock T.H. Dunbar R.I.M. Burnet P.W.J. Microbial transmission in animal social networks and the social microbiome.Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2020; 4: 1020-1035Crossref PubMed Scopus (40) Google Scholar the gut microbial communities of young infants were not more similar to the microbiotas of their mothers than were the gut microbial communities of offspring in older age classes (Figure S2A). In fact, young infants were significantly more dissimilar from their mothers than were offspring in other age groups (p = 0.016; likelihood tests of linear mixed effects models), a result that reinforces the distinctiveness of the infant chimpanzee gut microbiota. Nevertheless, we did find that the gut microbiota of offspring were more similar to those of their mothers than to those of randomly selected females of reproductive age (p = 0.016; likelihood tests of linear mixed effects models; Figure S2B). Despite higher gut microbial similarity in mother-offspring pairs, relatedness, where it could be assigned by pedigree, was not significantly associated with microbial community dissimilarity generally when compared among pairs of chimpanzees with known levels of genetic relatedness (p = 0.153; bootstrapped Kruskal-Wallis test; Figure S3A; Data S1C). In contrast, chimpanzee group membership and sex did predict levels of microbial dissimilarity (p < 0.001; bootstrapped Kruskal-Wallis tests; Figures S3B and S3C; Data S1C). To understand further how aging impacted the gut microbiota, we analyzed a subsample of the full dataset that included only repeat measurements of individuals with greater than 1 year between sampling dates (n = 106 samples from 87 individuals sampled during 2015–2018). Overall, we did not find a significant correlation between the time elapsed between samplings and the level of compositional dissimilarity (p = 0.788; Spearman correlations). However, we did find significant variation among age groups in the extent to which individual microbiotas changed over time, with infants showing the greatest change in microbiota with age (p = 0.006; likelihood tests of linear mixed effects models; Figure 3A). Post hoc tests demonstrate that infants changed more with age than did all other age groups except post-prime adults (p < 0.05; contrast tests for estimated marginal means of linear mixed effects model; Data S1F). Moreover, individuals who underwent an age transition (e.g., went from the young infant to the late infant group or from adult to post-prime adult) exhibited significantly more change per unit time than individuals who stayed within the same age group (p = 0.002; likelihood test of linear mixed effects models; Figure 3B), suggesting increased stability in the gut microbiota within developmental stages versus between them. We used all the samples in an indicator species analysis to identify microbial ASVs that distinguished among age groups through significant enrichment. Less than 6% of taxa were uniquely associated with a single age group, but of the 899 taxa that were, 659 (73%) were most abundant in young infants, and another 161 (18%) were most abundant in infants ages 2–5 (Table S1). Thus, the vast majority (91%) of all microbial taxa assessed to be useful for distinguishing among chimpanzee age groups were harbored by the youngest individuals. We also tested whether the absolute abundances of bacterial taxa associated with human infants16Bäckhed F. Roswall J. Peng Y. Feng Q. Jia H. Kovatcheva-Datchary P. Li Y. Xia Y. Xie H. Zhong H. et al.Dynamics and stabilization of the human gut microbiome during the first year of life.Cell Host Microbe. 2015; 17: 690-703Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1306) Google Scholar were similarly elevated in young chimpanzees. We found that the abundances of Bifidobacterium, Streptococcus, Rothia, Collinsella, Veillonellaceae, and Bacteroides varied with age group (p < 0.05; likelihood test linear mixed effects models; Figure 4). Of these taxa, all except Veillonellaceae reached their highest abundances in young infants (p < 0.05; contrast tests for estimated marginal means of linear mixed effects models; Data S1G). Young infants also had higher overall microbial density as estimated by universal qPCR targeting the 16S rRNA gene (p < 0.001; contrast tests for estimated marginal means of linear mixed effects model; Data S1H). Human infants harbor gut microbial communities distinct from those of adults, notably because of their high interindividual variation, low alpha-diversity, and dominance by a few stereotypical taxa.16Bäckhed F. Roswall J. Peng Y. Feng Q. Jia H. Kovatcheva-Datchary P. Li Y. Xia Y. Xie H. Zhong H. et al.Dynamics and stabilization of the human gut microbiome during the first year of life.Cell Host Microbe. 2015; 17: 690-703Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1306) Google Scholar With the introduction of solid foods and cessation of breastfeeding, these microbial communities transition to a more diverse and speciose state, generally with reduced interindividual variation.16Bäckhed F. Roswall J. Peng Y. Feng Q. Jia H. Kovatcheva-Datchary P. Li Y. Xia Y. Xie H. Zhong H. et al.Dynamics and stabilization of the human gut microbiome during the first year of life.Cell Host Microbe. 2015; 17: 690-703Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1306) Google Scholar, 17Koenig J.E. Spor A. Scalfone N. Fricker A.D. Stombaugh J. Knight R. Angenent L.T. Ley R.E. Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2011; 108: 4578-4585Crossref PubMed Scopus (1578) Google Scholar, 18Eggesbø M. Moen B. Peddada S. Baird D. Rugtveit J. Midtvedt T. Bushel P.R. Sekelja M. Rudi K. Development of gut microbiota in infants not exposed to medical interventions.APMIS. 2011; 119: 17-35Crossref PubMed Scopus (106) Google Scholar, 19Palmer C. Bik E.M. DiGiulio D.B. Relman D.A. Brown P.O. Development of the human infant intestinal microbiota.PLoS Biol. 2007; 5: e177Crossref PubMed Scopus (1955) Google Scholar, 20Yatsunenko T. Rey F.E. Manary M.J. Trehan I. Dominguez-Bello M.G. Contreras M. Magris M. Hidalgo G. Baldassano R.N. Anokhin A.P. et al.Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography.Nature. 2012; 486: 222-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (4273) Google Scholar The gut microbiota retains this pattern until late in life, when interindividual variation rises, alpha-diversity drops, and opportunistic pathogens gain stronger footholds. These age-related changes have been attributed to declining immune function and have been documented in diverse human populations,20Yatsunenko T. Rey F.E. Manary M.J. Trehan I. Dominguez-Bello M.G. Contreras M. Magris M. Hidalgo G. Baldassano R.N. Anokhin A.P. et al.Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography.Nature. 2012; 486: 222-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (4273) Google Scholar,21Subramanian S. Huq S. Yatsunenko T. Haque R. Mahfuz M. Alam M.A. Benezra A. DeStefano J. Meier M.F. Muegge B.D. et al.Persistent gut microbiota immaturity in malnourished Bangladeshi children.Nature. 2014; 510: 417-421Crossref PubMed Scopus (655) Google Scholar although patterns may be blunted in populations with especially high rates of microbial dispersal between individuals.22Ayeni F.A. Biagi E. Rampelli S. Fiori J. Soverini M. Audu H.J. Cristino S. Caporali L. Schnorr S.L. Carelli V. et al.Infant and adult gut microbiome and metabolome in rural Bassa and urban settlers from Nigeria.Cell Rep. 2018; 23: 3056-3067Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar Whether this pattern of change over the life course is unique to humans has remained unclear. Although previous research comparing human and non-human primate gut microbiotas has revealed differences that parallel phylogeny8Moeller A.H. Li Y. Mpoudi Ngole E. Ahuka-Mundeke S. Lonsdorf E.V. Pusey A.E. Peeters M. Hahn B.H. Ochman H. Rapid changes in the gut microbiome during human evolution.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2014; 111: 16431-16435Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar and ecology,9Gomez A. Sharma A.K. Mallott E.K. Petrzelkova K.J. Jost Robinson C.A. Yeoman C.J. Carbonero F. Pafco B. Rothman J.M. Ulanov A. et al.Plasticity in the human gut microbiome defies evolutionary constraints.mSphere. 2019; 4 (e00271–19)Crossref PubMed Scopus (25) Google Scholar,10Amato K.R. Mallott E.K. McDonald D. Dominy N.J. Goldberg T. Lambert J.E. Swedell L. Metcalf J.L. Gomez A. Britton G.A.O. et al.Convergence of human and Old World monkey gut microbiomes demonstrates the importance of human ecology over phylogeny.Genome Biol. 2019; 20: 201Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar the studies did not sample the youngest individuals, precluding a test of how these differences originate and develop. For instance, a previous study of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in Tanzania found higher gut microbial alpha-diversity in young than in older individuals,11Degnan P.H. Pusey A.E. Lonsdorf E.V. Goodall J. Wroblewski E.E. Wilson M.L. Rudicell R.S. Hahn B.H. Ochman H. Factors associated with the diversification of the gut microbial communities within chimpanzees from Gombe National Park.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2012; 109: 13034-13039Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar but the “younger” sample included only three individuals less than 7 years old and none less than 3 years old, the age at which the gut microbiota in humans assumes its adult-like patterning.20Yatsunenko T. Rey F.E. Manary M.J. Trehan I. Dominguez-Bello M.G. Contreras M. Magris M. Hidalgo G. Baldassano R.N. Anokhin A.P. et al.Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography.Nature. 2012; 486: 222-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (4273) Google Scholar Another study that included infants under 3 years old did not directly examine age effects on diversity.12Moeller A.H. Foerster S. Wilson M.L. Pusey A.E. Hahn B.H. Ochman H. Social behavior shapes the chimpanzee pan-microbiome.Sci. Adv. 2016; 2: e1500997Crossref PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar To address this gap, we investigated patterns of gut microbial maturation in wild chimpanzees and compared them to patterns previously observed in humans. Analyzing more than 3 years of samples from two groups of chimpanzees ranging in age from 8 months to 67 years, we found that chimpanzee gut microbiota composition and diversity varied with age in biologically meaningful ways, with microbial shifts occurring during age group transitions and the largest shifts seen in young individuals experiencing progressive nutritional independence. The infant gut microbiota of Kibale chimpanzees shared certain features with that of the human infant gut microbiota. The high interindividual variation we document among infant chimpanzee gut microbial communities relative to older conspecifics is comparable to that among infant humans.20Yatsunenko T. Rey F.E. Manary M.J. Trehan I. Dominguez-Bello M.G. Contreras M. Magris M. Hidalgo G. Baldassano R.N. Anokhin A.P. et al.Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography.Nature. 2012; 486: 222-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (4273) Google Scholar In addition, chimpanzee and human infant gut microbial communities are enriched in many of the same bacterial genera, including those known to degrade milk oligosaccharides (e.g., Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides).23Milani C. Duranti S. Bottacini F. Casey E. Turroni F. Mahony J. Belzer C. Delgado Palacio S. Arboleya Montes S. Mancabelli L. et al.The first microbial colonizers of the human gut: composition, activities, and health implications of the infant gut microbiota.Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2017; 81: e00036-17Crossref PubMed Scopus (589) Google Scholar However, in direct contrast to the pattern that has typically been documented in humans,20Yatsunenko T. Rey F.E. Manary M.J. Trehan I. Dominguez-Bello M.G. Contreras M. Magris M. Hidalgo G. Baldassano R.N. Anokhin A.P. et al.Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography.Nature. 2012; 486: 222-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (4273) Google Scholar,21Subramanian S. Huq S. Yatsunenko T. Haque R. Mahfuz M. Alam M.A. Benezra A. DeStefano J. Meier M.F. Muegge B.D. et al.Persistent gut microbiota immaturity in malnourished Bangladeshi children.Nature. 2014; 510: 417-421Crossref PubMed Scopus (655) Google Scholar the gut microbial communities of infant chimpanzees in our sample exhibited higher rather than lower alpha-diversity compared to those of older conspecifics. Indeed, gut microbial alpha-diversity in the youngest chimpanzees (<2 years old) exceeded that of adults, with alpha-diversity rapidly declining as young chimpanzees aged. Higher gut microbial diversity in infant chimpanzees compared to older conspecifics could arise from age-specific variation in exogenous exposures but likely also reflects incomplete immune development. 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Zolfo M. et al.Mother-to-infant microbial transmission from different body sites shapes the developing infant gut microbiome.Cell Host Microbe. 2018; 24: 133-145.e5Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (382) Google Scholar,14Asnicar F. Manara S. Zolfo M. Truong D.T. Scholz M. Armanini F. Ferretti P. Gorfer V. Pedrotti A. Tett A. Segata N. Studying vertical microbiome transmission from mothers to infants by strain-level metagenomic profiling.mSystems. 2017; 2: e00164-16Crossref PubMed Scopus (186) Google Scholar). While relatively high gut microbiota diversity in young chimpanzees compared with older conspecifics could in theory be facilitated by more efficient vertical transmission, this appears not to be the case. Contrary to the expected direction of effects, previous studies have not yielded detectable signatures of vertical transmissio" @default.
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• W3109374922 title "Age Patterning in Wild Chimpanzee Gut Microbiota Diversity Reveals Differences from Humans in Early Life" @default.
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• W3109374922 doi "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.075" @default.
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