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• W3124616437 abstract "INTRODUCTIONOver the last quarter century, the United States has aggressively shifted among various international law and policy-making forums to promote a goal of harmonizing the world's intellectual property laws in its image.1 In the 1980s and '90s, the primary forum for the achievement of that goal was multilateral2-the United States was one of the primary promoters of the World Trade Organization accords of 1994, including its landmark agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).3 In the immediate post-TRIPS period, the multilateral regime became hostile to a U.S. agenda to further harmonize international intellectual property protection beyond TRIPS,4 and the agenda was confronted as well by growing public opposition from increasingly vocal and organized global social movements.5 A central argument of the opposition was that one size does not fit all in intellectual property policy and that, instead, need to take advantage of the flexibilities and ambiguities in the international legal system to craftlaws to best serve their own policy goals. An over-expansion of one-size-fits-all intellectual property laws was framed as a threat to numerous vital social and economic objectives, including promoting access to affordable medications, enabling farmers to save and trade their own seeds, and ensuring that students can access affordable learning materials.6 In response to the success of this opposition at the multilateral level and in more open policy-making forums, the U.S. agenda shifted vertically into a series of closed-door bilateral and plurilateral trade agreement negotiations.7The first post-TRIPS forum shiftby the United States was to bilateral agreements with a number of close allies and very small economies, beginning with the U.S.-Jordan Free Trade Agreement in 2001. In each of the agreements, a central dynamic in the negotiation was the offer of increased market access by the United States in exchange for the other country accepting TRIPS-plus commitments on domestic intellectual property regulation (i.e., minimum standards in excess of those required by the TRIPS Agreement).8 The bilateral agenda was largely successful in terms of escalating intellectual property standards among the U.S. partners in a number of areas leftopen by TRIPS. But accounting for just 8.5% of all U.S. trade (most of which was in three of the eleven FTA partners),9 the bilateral commitments were not an end goal. Rather, the bilateral agenda was making way for a next stage that would expand the stronger IPR commitments found in these bilateral agreements to a broader set of countries through plurilateral agreements.10A plurilateral stage in post-TRIPS forum shifting by the United States began with the negotiation of the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) between a set of geographically diverse, but like-minded (and largely high-income), and regions: the United States, Japan, Korea, the European Union, Switzerland, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, Singapore, and Morocco. The goal was to establish a model that other could accede to- creating the base for an ultimately global agreement. The process used for the negotiation, insisted upon by the United States, was the closed and secretive model of a bilateral negotiation, rather than the more open and transparent process of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) or, to a lesser extent, the World Trade Organization (WTO).11 The strategy appeared tailored to avoid an open debate over the standards being proposed in the agreement.12 But the process ultimately backfired. A steady stream of leaks revealed proposals that alarmed public interest groups, academics, and many negotiating country legislatures.13 When the secretive agreement was completed and submitted to its first ratification process-in the EU Parliament-it was soundly rejected,14 stalling the ratification process elsewhere, perhaps permanently. …" @default.
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• W3124616437 date "2012-01-01" @default.
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• W3124616437 title "The U.S. Proposal for an Intellectual Property Chapter in the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement" @default.
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