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• W3125115405 abstract "IntroductionStates frequently work with and through non-state actors, sometimes in cases where direct state action would have been politically or legally suspect. During the past few years, for example, the United States has financed, armed, and trained opposition forces in Syria.1 Russia has assisted and supplied separatist forces in eastern Ukraine.2 Iran continues to arm and fund Hezbollah in Lebanon.3 Across the globe, states fund, arm, train, and assist non-state actors engaged in armed conflict.4 Moreover, in many of these cases, non-state actors take actions that would violate international law if undertaken directly by a state or its organs.5This raises a pressing issue: When is a state responsible for the actions of a non-state actor? This question leads, in turn, to a host of additional questions: What degree of does a state need to exercise over a non-state actor to be held liable for that actor's conduct? What actions should states take to ensure their non-state partners comply with their international law obligations? When states train and advise groups not to commit violations of international law, should they be held responsible when those actors do commit violations?This problem is not new. The use of non-state actors as proxies was a prominent feature of the Cold War, perhaps most famously in the Bay of Pigs Invasion in 19616 and the proxy war in Afghanistan throughout the 1980s.7 But the problem has risen to new prominence in recent years. Faced by stringent legal limits on their own direct action, states have exploited what has become a large and growing loophole in the international legal framework: States that work through non-state actors operate in a zone of legal uncertainty. As long as the doctrine of state responsibility for the actions of non-state actors remains unclear, states can exploit that uncertainty to make an end-run around their own legal obligations. This allows states to appear to abide by the law, while achieving all their illegal aims indirectly through non-state actors that would be unable to act without their support. The potential damage to the international legal framework is enormous.In this Article, we argue that existing state-responsibility doctrine is insufficient to meet the current challenges. The International Law Commission's Draft Articles on state responsibility and the jurisprudence of the international courts have continued to rely on a variety of control tests to determine the scope of state responsibility for non-state-actor conduct. The current law of state responsibility focuses on whether the actions of a non-state actor can be attributed to a state. Under the framework for attribution, states must be shown to exercise a sufficient degree of over the act or the actor in order to be held liable for non-state actors' commission of internationally wrongful acts. Yet, despite states' pervasive engagement with non-state actors, courts have rarely found states liable under these tests. The resulting framework has led to a critical accountability gap in state-responsibility doctrine: States too often effectively escape responsibility for violations of the laws of armed conflict if they act through non-state partners. It has also created dangerous incentives for states. They not only have little reason to police the actions of non-state actors that fall below the threshold for attribution, they may even be actively discouraged from taking actions to mitigate the danger of international humanitarian law (IHL) violations by non-state actors: They may worry that taking measures to prevent violations could cause them to exercise that might subject them to liability even for ultra vires acts.In March 2016, the International Committee of the Red Cross issued new commentaries on the Geneva Convention-the first in more than six decades.8 Contained within them is a possible answer to the problem created by modern state-responsibility doctrine: Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions obligates states to undertake to and to ensure respect for the Conventions in all circumstances. …" @default.
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• W3125115405 date "2017-02-01" @default.
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• W3125115405 title "Ensuring Responsibility: Common Article 1 and State Responsibility for Non-State Actors" @default.
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