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• W3125725013 abstract "IntroductionBy short-term suspension or semester- and year-long expulsion, public schools exclude about three and a half million students a year.1 Since the 1970s, many students' chances of exclusion have doubled and tripled.2 Each African-American student who passes through the halls of a middle or high school in the fall has nearly a one-in-four chance of being suspended or expelled by the spring.3 Some schools today will actually hand out more total suspensions than they have students, suspending some students multiple times.4 This dramatic spike results from schools increasingly suspending and expelling students for relatively minor misbehavior. Today, less than ten percent of suspensions and expulsions are for weapons, violence, or drug-related behavior.5 The rest are for misbehavior that in the past would have been dealt with informally. This represents a shift in discipline philosophy itself-from discipline responses designed to improve students' behavior to punitive responses that demonstrate toughness and reassure the public that [school officials] are in control.6 This entails rigid[ly] and inflexibl[y] . . . meting out punishment upon students who violate school rules, regardless of the infraction.7The effects of this shift are far-reaching for both individual students and the overall education system. Data increasingly shows that the frequent use of suspension and expulsion to control student behavior creates a negative learning environment that incentivizes misbehavior and depresses overall academic achievement.8 For the struggling student, punitive disciplinary environments may produce more misbehavior, not less.9 When schools suspend or expel these students, the next step for a significant number will eventually be the juvenile justice system.10 Moreover, the result is not to create a better learning environment for well-behaved students. To the contrary, punitive discipline undermines educational outcomes for well-behaved students as well.11For the past decade, advocates, researchers, and a few policymakers have worked feverishly to end punitive discipline and slow the so-called school-to-prison pipeline.12 The strategy has involved two steps. The first step has been to emphasize the staggering raw data on school suspensions and law enforcement referrals, hoping to shame schools into reform.13 The second step emphasizes the availability of discipline models that help students make better decisions and avoid misbehavior in the first instance, trusting that conscientious schools will adopt best practices.14 While these efforts have achieved promising results in several locations,15 positive results remain isolated and harsh discipline remains dominant.16The inability of reformers to identify a legal basis to demand meaningful change in court has slowed progress. While existing precedent clearly protects students' right to certain procedures prior to punishment,17 it has done very little to force schools to rethink the basic justifications for suspending and expelling students.18 Currently, reformers' primary option is to pursue administrative remedies with the U.S. Department of Education. Administrative remedies, however, are limited in scope. In 2014, the Department announced a new discipline policy, but the Department only has authority to limit egregious racial disparities in school discipline, not punitive discipline in general.19 Equally problematic, the new policy is subject to discretionary underenforcement and retraction at any time.Recognizing the need for legal remedies, scholars have theorized constitutional limits on the most egregious forms of school discipline and zero tolerance.20 But no one has articulated a broad legal theory for holistically reforming school discipline or connecting discipline policies to education quality. This Article offers that theory, challenging school exclusions and negative educational environments based on the rights and duties that grow out of education clauses found in state constitutions. …" @default.
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• W3125725013 date "2016-01-01" @default.
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• W3125725013 title "Reforming School Discipline" @default.
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