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• W3135011413 abstract "As a new sustainable energy source, ubiquitous mechanical energy has received great attention and was successfully harvested by different types of nanogenerators. Among them, biocompatible nanogenerators are of particular interests due to their potential for biomedical applications. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent achievements in the fabrication and application of biocompatible nanogenerators. The development process and working mechanism of nanogenerators are introduced. Different biocompatible materials for energy harvesting, such as amino acids, peptide, silk protein, and cellulose, are discussed and compared. We then discuss different applications of biocompatible nanogenerators. We conclude with the challenges and potential research directions in this emerging field. As a new sustainable energy source, ubiquitous mechanical energy has received great attention and was successfully harvested by different types of nanogenerators. Among them, biocompatible nanogenerators are of particular interests due to their potential for biomedical applications. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent achievements in the fabrication and application of biocompatible nanogenerators. The development process and working mechanism of nanogenerators are introduced. Different biocompatible materials for energy harvesting, such as amino acids, peptide, silk protein, and cellulose, are discussed and compared. We then discuss different applications of biocompatible nanogenerators. We conclude with the challenges and potential research directions in this emerging field. In recent years, emerging technologies have greatly changed our ways of life with devices such as smart watch, smart home, smart phone, and smart car. Long-time and environment-friendly energy supply for these devices is of great importance. Batteries provide a convenient solution, and great efforts have been made to extend their capacity and reduce their impact on the environment. The invention of a piezoelectric nanogenerator (PENG) in 2006 and a triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) in 2012 uncovered new approaches for power supply and enabled the rapid development of self-powered systems in many fields (Askari et al., 2018aAskari H. Hashemi E. Khajepour A. Khamesee M.B. Wang Z.L. Towards self-powered sensing using nanogenerators for automotive systems.Nano Energy. 2018; 53: 1003-1019Crossref Scopus (22) Google Scholar, Askari et al., 2018bAskari H. Khajepour A. Khamesee M.B. Saadatnia Z. Wang Z.L. Piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerators: trends and impacts.Nano Today. 2018; 22: 10-13Crossref Scopus (62) Google Scholar, Askari et al., 2019Askari H. Khajepour A. Khamesee M.B. Wang Z.L. Embedded self-powered sensing systems for smart vehicles and intelligent transportation.Nano Energy. 2019; 66: 104103Crossref Scopus (13) Google Scholar; Chen et al., 2019aChen H. Song Y. Cheng X. Zhang H. Self-powered electronic skin based on the triboelectric generator.Nano Energy. 2019; 56: 252-268Crossref Scopus (63) Google Scholar; Fan et al., 2012Fan F.-R. Tian Z.-Q. Lin Wang Z. Flexible triboelectric generator.Nano Energy. 2012; 1: 328-334Crossref Scopus (2422) Google Scholar; Wu et al., 2019Wu C. Wang A.C. Ding W. Guo H. Wang Z.L. Triboelectric nanogenerator: a foundation of the energy for the new era.Adv. Energy Mater. 2019; 9: 1802906Crossref Scopus (445) Google Scholar; Wang and Song, 2006Wang Z.L. Song J. Piezoelectric nanogenerators based on zinc oxide nanowire arrays.Science. 2006; 312: 242-246Crossref PubMed Scopus (5687) Google Scholar). A nanogenerator may consist of zinc oxide (ZnO), lead zirconate titanate (PZT), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and barium titanate (BTO) as energy conversion materials (Chen et al., 2010Chen X. Xu S. Yao N. Shi Y. 1.6 V nanogenerator for mechanical energy harvesting using PZT nanofibers.Nano Lett. 2010; 10: 2133-2137Crossref PubMed Scopus (706) Google Scholar; Qi et al., 2011Qi Y. Kim J. Nguyen T.D. Lisko B. Purohit P.K. McAlpine M.C. Enhanced piezoelectricity and stretchability in energy harvesting devices fabricated from buckled PZT ribbons.Nano Lett. 2011; 11: 1331-1336Crossref PubMed Scopus (338) Google Scholar; Shin et al., 2014Shin S.H. Kim Y.H. Lee M.H. Jung J.Y. Nah J. Hemispherically aggregated BaTiO3 nanoparticle composite thin film for high-performance flexible piezoelectric nanogenerator.ACS Nano. 2014; 8: 2766-2773Crossref PubMed Scopus (191) Google Scholar; Tan et al., 2018Tan D. Xiang Y. Leng Y. Leng Y. On the metal/ZnO contacts in a sliding-bending piezoelectric nanogenerator.Nano Energy. 2018; 50: 291-297Crossref Scopus (12) Google Scholar; Yang et al., 2012cYang Y. Pradel K.C. Jing Q. Wu J.M. Zhang F. Zhou Y. Zhang Y. Wang Z.L. Thermoelectric nanogenerators based on single Sb-doped ZnO micro/nanobelts.ACS Nano. 2012; 6: 6984-6989Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar). As the exploration of nanogenerators extended into such fields as human-machine interface, health monitoring, automotive systems, and wearable electronics, biocompatible materials received increasing attention and different biocompatible nanogenerators were fabricated (Askari et al., 2018aAskari H. Hashemi E. Khajepour A. Khamesee M.B. Wang Z.L. Towards self-powered sensing using nanogenerators for automotive systems.Nano Energy. 2018; 53: 1003-1019Crossref Scopus (22) Google Scholar; Chen et al., 2019bChen J. Oh S.K. Nabulsi N. Johnson H. Wang W. Ryou J.-H. Biocompatible and sustainable power supply for self-powered wearable and implantable electronics using III-nitride thin-film-based flexible piezoelectric generator.Nano Energy. 2019; 57: 670-679Crossref Scopus (27) Google Scholar; He et al., 2018He X. Zou H. Geng Z. Wang X. Ding W. Hu F. Zi Y. Xu C. Zhang S.L. Yu H. et al.A hierarchically nanostructured cellulose fiber-based triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered healthcare products.Adv. Funct. Mater. 2018; 28: 1805540Crossref Scopus (38) Google Scholar; Hwang et al., 2015Hwang G.T. Byun M. Jeong C.K. Lee K.J. Flexible piezoelectric thin-film energy harvesters and nanosensors for biomedical applications.Adv. Healthc. Mater. 2015; 4: 646-658Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar; Parida et al., 2019Parida K. Xiong J. Zhou X. Lee P.S. Progress on triboelectric nanogenerator with stretchability, self-healability and bio-compatibility.Nano Energy. 2019; 59: 237-257Crossref Scopus (63) Google Scholar; Song et al., 2019Song P. Yang G. Lang T. Yong K.-T. Nanogenerators for wearable bioelectronics and biodevices.J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2019; 52: 023002Crossref Scopus (14) Google Scholar; Sun et al., 2017Sun J.-G. Yang T.N. Kuo I.S. Wu J.-M. Wang C.-Y. Chen L.-J. A leaf-molded transparent triboelectric nanogenerator for smart multifunctional applications.Nano Energy. 2017; 32: 180-186Crossref Scopus (54) Google Scholar; Zou et al., 2020Zou Y. Raveendran V. Chen J. Wearable triboelectric nanogenerators for biomechanical energy harvesting.Nano Energy. 2020; 77: 105303Crossref Scopus (63) Google Scholar). Amino acids with chiral symmetry groups and hierarchical silk, collagen, cellulose and chitin with fibrous structures were explored as piezoelectric materials for biocompatible PENGs (He et al., 2018He X. Zou H. Geng Z. Wang X. Ding W. Hu F. Zi Y. Xu C. Zhang S.L. Yu H. et al.A hierarchically nanostructured cellulose fiber-based triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered healthcare products.Adv. Funct. Mater. 2018; 28: 1805540Crossref Scopus (38) Google Scholar; Yuan et al., 2019Yuan H. Han P. Tao K. Liu S. Gazit E. Yang R. Piezoelectric peptide and metabolite materials.Res. Commun. Mol. Pathol. Pharmacol. 2019; 2019: 9025939Google Scholar; Li et al., 2020bLi J. Long Y. Yang F. Wang X. Degradable piezoelectric biomaterials for wearable and implantable bioelectronics.Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 2020; 24: 100806Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar; Nguyen et al., 2016Nguyen V. Zhu R. Jenkins K. Yang R. Self-assembly of diphenylalanine peptide with controlled polarization for power generation.Nat. Commun. 2016; 7: 13566Crossref PubMed Scopus (122) Google Scholar; Wang et al., 2018Wang R. Gao S. Yang Z. Li Y. Chen W. Wu B. Wu W. Engineered and laser-processed chitosan biopolymers for sustainable and biodegradable triboelectric power generation.Adv. Mater. 2018; 30: 1706267Crossref Scopus (51) Google Scholar). Meanwhile, cellulose, spider silk, inion skin, and other polymers have also been used widely to fabricate a biocompatible TENG (Karan et al., 2018Karan S.K. Maiti S. Kwon O. Paria S. Maitra A. Si S.K. Kim Y. Kim J.K. Khatua B.B. Nature driven spider silk as high energy conversion efficient bio-piezoelectric nanogenerator.Nano Energy. 2018; 49: 655-666Crossref Scopus (34) Google Scholar; Liu et al., 2017Liu C. Li J. Che L. Chen S. Wang Z. Zhou X. Toward large-scale fabrication of triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) with silk-fibroin patches film via spray-coating process.Nano Energy. 2017; 41: 359-366Crossref Scopus (33) Google Scholar; Sun et al., 2017Sun J.-G. Yang T.N. Kuo I.S. Wu J.-M. Wang C.-Y. Chen L.-J. A leaf-molded transparent triboelectric nanogenerator for smart multifunctional applications.Nano Energy. 2017; 32: 180-186Crossref Scopus (54) Google Scholar; Wang et al., 2017Wang X. Yao C. Wang F. Li Z. Cellulose-based nanomaterials for energy applications.Small. 2017; 13: 1702240Crossref Scopus (69) Google Scholar, Wang et al., 2018Wang R. Gao S. Yang Z. Li Y. Chen W. Wu B. Wu W. Engineered and laser-processed chitosan biopolymers for sustainable and biodegradable triboelectric power generation.Adv. Mater. 2018; 30: 1706267Crossref Scopus (51) Google Scholar). The investigation of biocompatible energy conversion materials enabled the development of biocompatible nanogenerators and their applications in health monitoring, biosensing, implantable devices, drug delivery, and tissue engineering (Feng et al., 2018Feng H. Zhao C. Tan P. Liu R. Chen X. Li Z. Nanogenerator for biomedical applications.Adv. Healthc. Mater. 2018; 7: e1701298Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar; Kim et al., 2017aKim B.-Y. Hwang H.-G. Woo J.-U. Lee W.-H. Lee T.-H. Kang C.-Y. Nahm S. Nanogenerator-induced synaptic plasticity and metaplasticity of bio-realistic artificial synapses.NPG Asia Mater. 2017; 9: e381Crossref Scopus (33) Google Scholar; Shuai et al., 2020Shuai L. Guo Z.H. Zhang P. Wan J. Pu X. Wang Z.L. Stretchable, self-healing, conductive hydrogel fibers for strain sensing and triboelectric energy-harvesting smart textiles.Nano Energy. 2020; 78: 105389Crossref Scopus (5) Google Scholar; Sun et al., 2015Sun J. Li W. Liu G. Li W. Chen M. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on biocompatible polymer materials.J. Phys. Chem. C. 2015; 119: 9061-9068Crossref Scopus (25) Google Scholar; Wang et al., 2016bWang H. Xiang Z. Giorgia P. Mu X. Yang Y. Wang Z.L. Lee C. Triboelectric liquid volume sensor for self-powered lab-on-chip applications.Nano Energy. 2016; 23: 80-88Crossref Scopus (60) Google Scholar; Zheng et al., 2016bZheng Q. Zou Y. Zhang Y.L. Liu Z. Shi B.J. Wang X.X. Jin Y.M. Ouyang H. Li Z. Wang Z.L. Biodegradable triboelectric nanogenerator as a life-time designed implantable power source.Sci. Adv. 2016; 2: e1501478Crossref PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar). This review article focuses on the recent development of biocompatible nanogenerators that include PENGs, TENGs, and other nanogenerators. Figure 1 provides an overview of this article. In the first part, we reviewed the fundamentals of nanogenerators. In the second part, we introduced natural and synthetic biocompatible materials as energy conversion materials and different techniques for device fabrication. In the third part, we discussed various applications enabled by biocompatible nanogenerators and the application-specific requirements. At last, we highlighted the challenges faced by current biocompatible nanogenerators and the outlook of future research directions in this field. The large-scale mechanical energy in wind and river has long been an important source for human to acquire electricity. Scientists have tapped into a new energy source from the microscale and ubiquitous mechanical energy in the environment since the discovery of PENGs and TENGs. The awareness of environment protection and the needs for biomedical applications promoted the development of biocompatible nanogenerators that have the potential in improving the quality of our life. A PENG can directly convert ambient mechanical energy into electricity through the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect refers to the creation of polarization charges in a material when it is stressed, and the PENG uses the polarization potential to drive the current flow through the external circuit to realize the mechanical-electrical energy conversion. Wang et al. successfully demonstrated the energy conversion in ZnO nanowires (NWs) in 2006 (Figure 2A), which set the foundations for the development of PENG devices (Wang and Song, 2006Wang Z.L. Song J. Piezoelectric nanogenerators based on zinc oxide nanowire arrays.Science. 2006; 312: 242-246Crossref PubMed Scopus (5687) Google Scholar). When ZnO NWs were bent, a strain field and charge separation were produced because of the coupling of piezoelectric and semiconducting properties in ZnO. The rectifying characteristic of the Schottky barrier between the atomic force microscope metal tip and NWs resulted in the direct current (DC) power generation. In 2007, Wang et al. developed an NW array-based device which produced continuous DC output as the NWs were excited by ultrasonic waves (Wang et al., 2007Wang X. Song J. Liu J. Wang Z.L. Direct-current nanogenerator driven by ultrasonic waves.Science. 2007; 316: 102-105Crossref PubMed Scopus (1885) Google Scholar). However, the output was limited by the potential difference across the diameter of a bent NW. Yang et al. overcame the limit with a new design of a PENG that was based on a single NW fixed to a flexible substrate. The device generated an alternating current (AC) power output (Figure 2B), and it was sometimes called an AC nanogenerator (Yang et al., 2008Yang R. Qin Y. Dai L. Wang Z.L. Power generation with laterally packaged piezoelectric fine wires.Nat. Nanotechnol. 2008; 4: 34-39Crossref PubMed Scopus (712) Google Scholar). Thanks to its much higher voltage than that of a DC nanogenerator (Wang et al., 2007Wang X. Song J. Liu J. Wang Z.L. Direct-current nanogenerator driven by ultrasonic waves.Science. 2007; 316: 102-105Crossref PubMed Scopus (1885) Google Scholar), thereafter, the AC nanogenerator dominated the development of nanogenerators. Zhu et al. produced a PENG using ZnO NW arrays and the generated AC power successfully lighted up a commercial light-emitting diode (LED) (Zhu et al., 2010Zhu G. Yang R. Wang S. Wang Z.L. Flexible high-output nanogenerator based on lateral ZnO nanowire array.Nano Lett. 2010; 10: 3151-3155Crossref PubMed Scopus (376) Google Scholar). The great success of the ZnO-based PENG inspired the investigation of nanogenerators with piezoelectric biomaterials and advanced significantly the development of biocompatible nanogenerators. A PENG based on M13 bacteriophage was invented (Lee et al., 2012Lee B.Y. Zhang J. Zueger C. Chung W.J. Yoo S.Y. Wang E. Meyer J. Ramesh R. Lee S.W. Virus-based piezoelectric energy generation.Nat. Nanotechnol. 2012; 7: 351-356Crossref PubMed Scopus (276) Google Scholar). As described in Figure 2C, the device was based on the template-assisted vertical self-assembly of the bacteriophage, and the output power was used to operate a liquid crystal display with LED backlight. In vitro and in vivo PENGs have been discovered to harvest biomechanical energy (Li et al., 2010Li Z. Zhu G. Yang R. Wang A.C. Wang Z.L. Muscle-driven in vivo nanogenerator.Adv. Mater. 2010; 22: 2534-2537Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar; Zhang et al., 2015Zhang H. Zhang X.-S. Cheng X. Liu Y. Han M. Xue X. Wang S. Yang F. A S S. Zhang H. et al.A flexible and implantable piezoelectric generator harvesting energy from the pulsation of ascending aorta: in vitro and in vivo studies.Nano Energy. 2015; 12: 296-304Crossref Scopus (27) Google Scholar). Yu et al. implanted a PENG under the skin of a rodent, and no toxicity or incompatibility sign was found during 6 weeks of operation (Yu et al., 2016Yu Y. Sun H. Orbay H. Chen F. England C.G. Cai W. Wang X. Biocompatibility and in vivo operation of implantable mesoporous PVDF-based nanogenerators.Nano Energy. 2016; 27: 275-281Crossref PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar). Fan et al. reported the first energy harvester based on the triboelectric effect and electrostatic induction, and the device was later called a TENG (Fan et al., 2012Fan F.-R. Tian Z.-Q. Lin Wang Z. Flexible triboelectric generator.Nano Energy. 2012; 1: 328-334Crossref Scopus (2422) Google Scholar). The device was composed of a Kapton film and a polyester film that were stacked together and had metal electrodes deposited on their back sides (Figure 3A). The so-called vertical contact-separation working mode is shown in Figure 3B. Two thin polymer films contact and separate when a mechanical force is applied and released. Meanwhile, the charges generated on the contacting surfaces of two different materials drive the electrons in the external circuit to flow back and forth; thus, the TENG converted mechanical energy into electricity. The TENG generated a maximum output voltage and current signal up to 3.3 V and 0.6 mA, respectively, and the power was high enough to directly drive an LED. In addition to the contact-separation mode, the in-plane sliding mode was later found by Wang et al. (Figure 3C) (Wang et al., 2013Wang S. Lin L. Xie Y. Jing Q. Niu S. Wang Z.L. Sliding-triboelectric nanogenerators based on in-plane charge-separation mechanism.Nano Lett. 2013; 13: 2226-2233Crossref PubMed Scopus (167) Google Scholar). When the top and the bottom triboelectric materials contacted completely, positive and negative charges were generated on the contacting surfaces. When contacting surfaces were moved in the horizontal direction, an alternative electron flow was produced. The device generated an open-circuit voltage of 1300 V, a short-circuit current density of 4.1 mA/m2, and a peak power density (PD) of 5.3 W/m2. The energy produced by the TENG was used to drive hundreds of LED bulbs. This working mode was later used to fabricate devices with sliding cylinders and rotating discs (Bai et al., 2013Bai P. Zhu G. Liu Y. Chen J. Jing Q. Yang W. Ma J. Zhang G. Wang Z.L. Cylindrical rotating triboelectric nanogenerator.ACS Nano. 2013; 7: 6361-6366Crossref PubMed Scopus (75) Google Scholar; Jing et al., 2014Jing Q. Zhu G. Bai P. Xie Y. Chen J. Han R.P.S. Wang Z.L. Case-encapsulated triboelectric nanogenerator for harvesting energy from reciprocating sliding motion.ACS Nano. 2014; 8: 3836-3842Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar; Lin et al., 2013Lin L. Wang S. Xie Y. Jing Q. Niu S. Hu Y. Wang Z.L. Segmentally structured disk triboelectric nanogenerator for harvesting rotational mechanical energy.Nano Lett. 2013; 13: 2916-2923Crossref PubMed Scopus (328) Google Scholar). Bai et al. designed a cylindrical TENG to harvest mechanical energy from the rotational motion (Bai et al., 2013Bai P. Zhu G. Liu Y. Chen J. Jing Q. Yang W. Ma J. Zhang G. Wang Z.L. Cylindrical rotating triboelectric nanogenerator.ACS Nano. 2013; 7: 6361-6366Crossref PubMed Scopus (75) Google Scholar). The in-plane sliding mode shows superior device performance and greatly expands the application range of TENGs. Later, the single-electrode mode was proposed to overcome the limitation of above two modes that required two electrodes to form a directional flow of electrons in the circuit (Lin et al., 2014Lin Z.H. Cheng G. Lee S. Pradel K.C. Wang Z.L. Harvesting water drop energy by a sequential contact-electrification and electrostatic-induction process.Adv. Mater. 2014; 26: 4690-4696Crossref PubMed Scopus (349) Google Scholar). It consists of a ground electrode and a free-moving triboelectric layer. The potential difference is produced by contacting and separating periodically triboelectric layer, which results in the flow of electrons between the electrode and ground (Khandelwal et al., 2020Khandelwal G. Maria Joseph Raj N.P. Kim S.-J. Triboelectric nanogenerator for healthcare and biomedical applications.Nano Today. 2020; 33: 100882Crossref Scopus (24) Google Scholar). The freestanding mode was then developed from the single-electrode mode, which is composed of a charged layer and two symmetric electrodes (Zhu et al., 2014Zhu G. Chen J. Zhang T. Jing Q. Wang Z.L. Radial-arrayed rotary electrification for high performance triboelectric generator.Nat. Commun. 2014; 5: 3426Crossref PubMed Scopus (564) Google Scholar). Reciprocating motion of the charged layer between two electrodes without contacting leads to the change of the potential. In order to balance the potential difference, electrons flowed back and forth between the two electrodes through the external circuit load. The single-electrode mode and the freestanding mode showed special advantages in some application conditions, such as human-machine interface and flowing liquid. The discovery of four working modes enabled TENGs to enter a rapid development stage. Various types of TENGs with new designs and different frictional materials were developed. During the process of designing the TENGs, material surface properties, device structure, and environmental effects had been emphasized. Besides motion parameters, temperature and humidity also affect the output of TENGs. In order to establish a unified standard to evaluate the output performance of different kinds of TENGs, Zi et al. proposed a standardized method to calculate the figure of merit (FOM). The FOM reflected the actual output capacity of TENGs. Meanwhile, the standardized method and FOM were also successfully applied to the poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) film-based PENGs (Xia et al., 2019Xia X. Fu J. Zi Y. A universal standardized method for output capability assessment of nanogenerators.Nat. Commun. 2019; 10: 4428Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar; Zi et al., 2015Zi Y. Niu S. Wang J. Wen Z. Tang W. Wang Z.L. Standards and figure-of-merits for quantifying the performance of triboelectric nanogenerators.Nat. Commun. 2015; 6: 8376Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar). As the application of nanogenerators extends to health monitoring and other human tissue related areas, the environment requires materials used in nanogenerators must be biocompatible. Implantable medical devices powered by a TENG are considered as a transformative technology for human health. Jiang et al. fabricated a bioabsorbable natural-material-based TENG via natural polymers (Figure 3D) (Jiang et al., 2018Jiang W. Li H. Liu Z. Li Z. Tian J. Shi B. Zou Y. Ouyang H. Zhao C. Zhao L. et al.Fully bioabsorbable natural-materials-based triboelectric nanogenerators.Adv. Mater. 2018; 30: 1801895Crossref PubMed Scopus (159) Google Scholar). The device was suitable for in vivo biomedical studies due to their biodegradable and bioresorbable property. Most importantly, it provides an effective method for the treatment of some heart diseases such as bradycardia and arrhythmia. In addition to PENGs and TENGs, devices (pyroelectric nanogenerators, electromagnetic generators, solar cells, and electrochemical cells) with other working mechanisms have also been invented. They can convert thermal, magnetic, solar, and chemical energy into electricity. For example, a pyroelectric nanogenerator was developed to recover the waste heat through the pyroelectric effect (Yang et al., 2012aYang Y. Guo W. Pradel K.C. Zhu G. Zhou Y. Zhang Y. Hu Y. Lin L. Wang Z.L. Pyroelectric nanogenerators for harvesting thermoelectric energy.Nano Lett. 2012; 12: 2833-2838Crossref PubMed Scopus (451) Google Scholar, Yang et al., 2012bYang Y. Lin Z.H. Hou T. Zhang F. Wang Z.L. Nanowire-composite based flexible thermoelectric nanogenerators and self-powered temperature sensors.Nano Res. 2012; 5: 888-895Crossref Scopus (139) Google Scholar). The device took advantage of the anisotropic polarization in ZnO NWs to drive the electrons to flow, which was caused by the temperature fluctuation with the time. Li. et al. reported a highly efficient sunlight-triggered pyroelectric nanogenerator that was integrated in an outdoor bracelet (Figure 4A) (Li et al., 2020aLi H. Koh C.S.L. Lee Y.H. Zhang Y. Phan-Quang G.C. Zhu C. Liu Z. Chen Z. Sim H.Y.F. Lay C.L. et al.A wearable solar-thermal-pyroelectric harvester: achieving high power output using modified rGO-PEI and polarized PVDF.Nano Energy. 2020; 73: 104723Crossref Scopus (16) Google Scholar). Integrating different nanogenerators into one hybrid device is another way to harvest different forms of environmental energy (Chen et al., 2017aChen X. Han M. Chen H. Cheng X. Song Y. Su Z. Jiang Y. Zhang H. A wave-shaped hybrid piezoelectric and triboelectric nanogenerator based on P(VDF-TrFE) nanofibers.Nanoscale. 2017; 9: 1263-1270Crossref PubMed Google Scholar; Jurado et al., 2020Jurado U.T. Pu S.H. White N.M. Grid of hybrid nanogenerators for improving ocean wave impact energy harvesting self-powered applications.Nano Energy. 2020; 72: 104701Crossref Scopus (6) Google Scholar; Wang et al., 2020aWang Y. Wu H. Xu L. Zhang H. Yang Y. Wang Z.L. Hierarchically patterned self-powered sensors for multifunctional tactile sensing.Sci. Adv. 2020; 6: eabb9083Crossref PubMed Scopus (3) Google Scholar, Wang et al., 2020bWang Q. Zou H.-X. Zhao L.-C. Li M. Wei K.-X. Huang L.-P. Zhang W.-M. A synergetic hybrid mechanism of piezoelectric and triboelectric for galloping wind energy harvesting.Appl. Phys. Lett. 2020; 117: 043902Crossref Scopus (2) Google Scholar). Among them, hybrid triboelectric-piezoelectric hybrid nanogenerators have been successfully prepared and widely applied in various fields. Chen et al. combined a poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE))-based TENG and a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based PENG to form a multilayer hybrid nanogenerator (Figure 4B) (Chen et al., 2017bChen X. Song Y. Su Z. Chen H. Cheng X. Zhang J. Han M. Zhang H. Flexible fiber-based hybrid nanogenerator for biomechanical energy harvesting and physiological monitoring.Nano Energy. 2017; 38: 43-50Crossref Scopus (2) Google Scholar). The device can be attached to the belly or wrist of a human body for monitoring physiological signals, which has a broad application potential in self-powered health monitoring systems. Vu Nguyen et al. simplified the structure of a hybrid nanogenerator by integrating a peptide-based PENG with a single-electrode TENG. By utilizing the friction charge generated by the TENG, the output performance of the PENG can be improved (Nguyen et al., 2017Nguyen V. Kelly S. Yang R. Piezoelectric peptide-based nanogenerator enhanced by single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerator.APL Mater. 2017; 5: 074108Crossref Scopus (24) Google Scholar). Other hybrid energy harvesters have also been proposed, such as hybridized electromagnetic-triboelectric nanogenerators, electromagnetic-piezoelectric-triboelectric hybrid nanogenerator, and the hybridization of solar cells with a TENG or electromagnetic nanogenerator (Guo et al., 2018Guo Y. Zhang X.-S. Wang Y. Gong W. Zhang Q. Wang H. Brugger J. All-fiber hybrid piezoelectric-enhanced triboelectric nanogenerator for wearable gesture monitoring.Nano Energy. 2018; 48: 152-160Crossref Scopus (154) Google Scholar; Li et al., 2019aLi M. Jie Y. Shao L.-H. Guo Y. Cao X. Wang N. Wang Z.L. All-in-one cellulose based hybrid tribo/piezoelectric nanogenerator.Nano Res. 2019; 12: 1831-1835Crossref Scopus (21) Google Scholar; Singh and Khare, 2018Singh H.H. Khare N. Flexible ZnO-PVDF/PTFE based piezo-tribo hybrid nanogenerator.Nano Energy. 2018; 51: 216-222Crossref Scopus (58) Google Scholar). To improve the performance of biocompatible nanogenerators, both materials and fabrication methods have been widely explored in recent years. The functional material used in biocompatible nanogenerators includes polymers, biomolecules, and inorganic materials (Figure 5). Among which, polymers show excellent durability and reliability, while biomolecule-based materials show the best biocompatible potential. For constructing biocompatible nanogenerators, electrospinning, aqueous dispersion, direct writing technology, hydrothermal synthesis, and other techniques are widely studied. PVDF and P(VDF-TrFE) are the most studied polymers and good candidates for the fabrication of biocompatible nanogenerators due to their good piezoelectricity, flexibility, biocompatibility, and processability. Chang et al. created PVDF nanofiber-based nanogenerators by using a direct-write technology with a near-field electrospinning process (Chang et al., 2010Chang C. Tran V.H. Wang J. Fuh Y.-K. Lin L. Direct-write piezoelectric polymeric nanogenerator with high energy conversion efficiency.Nano Lett. 2010; 10: 726-731Crossref PubMed Scopus (918) Google Scholar). Figure 6A shows the schematic process of the nanogenerator fabrication. Siddiqui et al. improved the performance of a piezoelectric nanogenerator by imbedding barium titanate nanoparticles into P(VDF-TrFE) films (Siddiqui et al., 2015Siddiqui S. Kim D.-I. Duy L.T. Nguyen M.T. Muhammad S. Yoon W.-S. Lee N.-E. High-performance flexible lead-free nanocomposite piezoelectric nanogenerator for biomechanical energy harvesting and storage.Nano Energy. 2015; 15: 177-185Crossref Scopus (110) Google Scholar). The schematic of the nanocomposite PENG is shown in Figure 6B. Thanks to the enhanced piezoelectricity of P(VDF-TrFE) by barium titanate nanoparticles, the nanocomposite PENG produced an output voltage and output PD as high as that of lead-containing PZT-based PENGs. (A) Fabrication of piezoelectric PVDF nanofibers for a PENG by combing n" @default.
• W3135011413 created "2021-03-15" @default.
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• W3135011413 creator A5011841576 @default.
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• W3135011413 date "2021-04-01" @default.
• W3135011413 modified "2023-10-14" @default.
• W3135011413 title "Fabrication and application of biocompatible nanogenerators" @default.
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