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• W318131505 abstract "I want to thank my critics for their excellent comments. (1) Before I try to respond to them, let me say something about the project that I intend to be contributing to. In my book, I ask the question: which rights should be universal? The book is the first of two volumes that try to answer it. In the first volume, which is the only one that has been published so far, I focus on the big picture and outline, in general terms, a list of nine basic rights. I provide both consequentialist and non-consequentialist rationales for the rights on my list. In the second volume Human Rights and Human Well-Being (forthcoming), I explain why I favor the consequentialist rationale over the non-consequentialist rationale, I specify more precisely the contours of the basic rights, and I consider which other rights should be universal. One way of understanding my book is as an attempt to continue the Enlightenment project of identifying universal rights that all governments should guarantee for their people, but without the Enlightenment epistemology. The Declaration of Independence famously says: hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. In my book, I discuss why the drafters claimed that those rights were self-evident, when, in retrospect, it is clear that their claims were not self-evident. To say that a proposition is self-evident is to assert that no one could reasonably disagree with it. At the time the Declaration of Independence was written, the prevailing model of justification for a belief was based on proof in mathematics, so I refer to it as the Proof Paradigm. Justification according to the Proof Paradigm required ruling out all reasonable disagreement. Of course, at the time during which the Declaration of Independence was written, there was lots of reasonable disagreement about universal human rights. We know that the Declaration's contents were not self-evident, not even to the drafters, because many of them held slaves and defended slavery. Furthermore, from our historical vantage point, we know that which rights governments should guarantee their people is not self-evident, because we can see how our understanding of them evolves over time. Locke, Kant, and Rousseau were the main philosophical advocates of universal rights for men (at least, white property-owners), but none of them extended those rights to women. The Enlightenment philosophers made some big mistakes. This is enough to show that there was something wrong with their epistemological paradigm, the Proof Paradigm. Because they thought they had a source of infallible moral knowledge, I say they were epistemically immodest. In my book, I emphasize the importance in moral inquiry of epistemic modesty, of acknowledging that we may be mistaken. However, many philosophers today would not stop with epistemic modesty. They would insist that there was also something wrong with the Enlightenment metaphysics--with the idea that there are fundamental moral principles that apply strictly universally--to all moral beings or all rational beings in all possible worlds. I call this metaphysical immodesty. For many philosophers, it seems obvious that if we give up the Enlightenment's epistemic immodesty, we will see that we must give up its metaphysical immodesty also. If we no longer claim to have a priori access to truths that hold in all possible worlds, then how could we possibly have any way of being justified in believing any moral principles to be universal in this strong sense? (2) In my book I build on the work of Mill, Rawls, and Habermas to outline an alternative to the Proof Paradigm as a model for reasonable moral belief, the Moral Discovery Paradigm. On the Proof Paradigm, reasoning is top-down, from moral principles to particular moral judgments. On the Moral Discovery Paradigm, reasoning is primarily bottom-up, from particular moral judgments about actual and hypothetical cases to the moral principles that best explain them. …" @default.
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• W318131505 date "2007-01-01" @default.
• W318131505 modified "2023-09-23" @default.
• W318131505 title "The Universality of Human Rights: A Response" @default.
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