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• W3187627840 abstract "Cephalopods have inspired the development of many bio-inspired technologies. But how accurately can researchers model the optical features and functions of cephalopod skin without sacrificing speed or design? In ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, Han et al. demonstrate one approach to tackle these challenges. Cephalopods have inspired the development of many bio-inspired technologies. But how accurately can researchers model the optical features and functions of cephalopod skin without sacrificing speed or design? In ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, Han et al. demonstrate one approach to tackle these challenges. The speed and precision with which cephalopods can alter their color and pattern to perform critical functions for defense and communication are unmatched across the animal kingdom. This exceptional performance is enabled by a combination of pigmentary and structural elements stratified throughout their skin to generate colors that span the entire visible spectrum. Densely populated (e.g., thousands to millions per animal)1Reiter S. Hülsdunk P. Woo T. Lauterbach M.A. Eberle J.S. Akay L.A. Longo A. Meier-Credo J. Kretschmer F. Langer J.D. et al.Elucidating the control and development of skin patterning in cuttlefish.Nature. 2018; 562: 361-366Crossref PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar throughout the uppermost layers of the dermis are chromatophores, microscale “pixels” that are mechanically actuated to control color across multiple spatial scales and reveal or obscure underlying reflective elements.2Allen J.J. Bell G.R.R. Kuzirian A.M. Hanlon R.T. Cuttlefish skin papilla morphology suggests a muscular hydrostatic function for rapid changeability.J. Morphol. 2013; 274: 645-656Crossref PubMed Scopus (36) Google Scholar Radial muscles surrounding each of these independently controlled organs modulate the geometry of a deformable cytoelastic sacculus (Figure 1A) filled with pigmented granules3Cloney R.A. Florey E. Ultrastructure of cephalopod chromatophore organs.Zeitschrift fur Zellforschung und mikroskopische Anatomie. 1968; 89: 250-280Crossref PubMed Scopus (212) Google Scholar to provide rapid alteration of a cephalopod’s appearance with exceptional resolution. Operating under direct neuronal control in response to measurements of the surrounding environment, chromatophores have inspired the development of technologies for exciting application areas in defense, consumer products, and wearable electronics.4Kreit E. Mäthger L.M. Hanlon R.T. Dennis P.B. Naik R.R. Forsythe E. Heikenfeld J. Biological versus electronic adaptive coloration: how can one inform the other?.J. R. Soc. Interface. 2013; 10: 20120601Crossref PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar However, previous approaches to creating such systems have highlighted practical challenges in mimicking the biological intricacies of cephalopods, often requiring complex control hardware for energetically expensive actuation strategies.5Han D. Wang Y. Yang C. Lee H. Multimaterial Printing for Cephalopod-Inspired Light-Responsive Artificial Chromatophores.ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2021; 13: 12735-12745Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar Indeed, the biological complexity of cephalopod coloration makes it uniquely challenging to create biomimetic optical and/or mechanical platforms that approximate the mechanisms and functions of adaptive coloration in these animals. Creating integrated adaptive coloration systems in which both sensing and display can be completed rapidly and locally within a self-contained form factor is a principal challenge in the development of cephalopod-inspired technologies. In the work highlighted within this preview, Han et al. demonstrate mechanically dynamic artificial chromatophores enabled by a combination of light-responsive and passive, stretchable hydrogels. To create a “photo-active muscle” that contracts upon irradiation, the authors embedded photothermal polydopamine nanoparticles in a temperature-responsive NIPAAm (poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)) matrix crosslinked with PEGDA (poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate). Upon irradiation with visible light, heat generated by the nanoparticles induced shrinking of the surrounding hydrogel. To leverage the function of these light-responsive actuators for the development of an artificial chromatophore, the authors fabricated a “stretchable sac” from an acrylic acid-based hydrogel, inspired by the cytoelastic sacculus encompassing light-scattering and absorbing pigmented granules in cephalopod skin. These mechanically deformable features were positioned between two opposing photomechanical “muscles” anchored to a rigid frame (Figure 1B) via the clever application of multimaterial projection microstereolithography (MM-PμSL). This approach enabled symmetrical deformation of the central feature upon uniform heating or irradiation of the composite material. The authors also expanded this architecture into an array of artificial chromatophores that were independently controlled by selective irradiation. A strategic combination of photothermal polydopamine nanoparticles within a temperature-responsive hydrogel generated contractile responses (e.g., ∼30% length reduction for an unconstrained actuator) upon irradiation with visible light at an intensity of 0.77 W/cm2 from a commercially available projector. This optical stimulus produced a ∼60°C–80°C temperature change that facilitated complete contraction of a freestanding “photo-active muscle” in minutes (ca., 500 s). To create artificial chromatophore-like systems, the authors anchored a deformable acrylic acid hydrogel, prepared using a combination of covalent (PEGDA) and ionic (Fe+3) cross-linking agents, between two opposing photomechanical actuators. These elastic hydrogels could reversibly stretch up to 3 times their original length during light-induced actuation of the surrounding artificial muscles. Junctions between the photo-responsive actuators, elastic hydrogel, and the rigid outer frame were enhanced by the adhesion-promoting properties (e.g., catechol groups)6Han L. Zhang Y. Lu X. Wang K. Wang Z. Zhang H. Polydopamine Nanoparticles Modulating Stimuli-Responsive PNIPAM Hydrogels with Cell/Tissue Adhesiveness.ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2016; 8: 29088-29100Crossref PubMed Scopus (164) Google Scholar of the polydopamine nanoparticles embedded in the artificial muscles. A key feature of this design was the impressive mechanical strength of the connections between dissimilar materials that enabled continuous operation of light-responsive artificial chromatophores (LACs) at their operating temperatures (e.g., 60°C). This approach produced junctions that were more than five times stronger than systems prepared without a photothermal component. In addition to being able to fabricate complete LACs, the authors were also able to create multiplexed arrays using a custom multimaterial printing system. Upon irradiation, these systems achieved a 40% area expansion of the central hydrogel in 10 min, with 95% of the actuation occurring within the first 2 min. Finally, independent activation of arrayed LACs was achieved by selective irradiation, meaning that the actuators replicated the pattern of illumination, but with a small amount of unintentional actuation due to heat transfer between adjacent pixels. The work presented in “Multimaterial Printing for Cephalopod-Inspired Light-Responsive Artificial Chromatophores” by Han et al. represents a unique approach to approximating the architecture and function of the primary color-changing feature in cephalopod skin. The authors demonstrate reversible mechanical deformation without direct connection to external equipment, achieving modulation of visible color in a manner that captures the fundamental mechanism behind chromatophore actuation in nature—manipulation of elastic materials by muscle contraction. Like actual chromatophores, in which radial muscles anchored to the surrounding tissue are attached to the periphery of a cytoelastic sacculus filled with pigmented granules, this approach requires robust connections between materials with different mechanical and surface properties to function. The impressive performance of many optical and photonic systems in nature is supported by composites of different soft materials, representing a grand challenge in designing bio-inspired photonic technologies with desired spectral functions that are also compatible with mechanically compliant architectures. The design, fabrication, and mechanical characterization of multimaterial systems, like those described here, are critical engineering steps required for creating new technologies that can better approximate biology. Specifically, the work discussed in this preview represents one example of an approach that uses bio-inspired design principles to enable tightly coupled multimaterial composites to generate specific mechanical and optical responses. A major challenge in developing cephalopod-inspired sensing and display technologies has been the selection and implementation of appropriate actuation strategies that do not depend on impractical and unsustainable power requirements or a need for secondary equipment, such as external electronics, amplifiers, or pumps, that are large, expensive, or energetically prohibitive. Often, two-dimensional appearance-changing materials and devices rely solely on electrical signals to produce controlled changes in reflectance (e.g., electrochromics)7Kumar A. Williams T.L. Martin C.A. Figueroa-Navedo A.M. Deravi L.F. Xanthommatin-Based Electrochromic Displays Inspired by Nature.ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2018; 10: 43177-43183Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar and/or presented surface area (e.g., dielectric elastomers),8Xu C. Colorado Escobar M. Gorodetsky A.A. Stretchable Cephalopod-Inspired Multimodal Camouflage Systems.Adv. Mater. 2020; 32: e1905717Crossref PubMed Scopus (33) Google Scholar while the generation of color and shape-changing three-dimensional features necessitates reproducible application of mechanical force using localized pressure or strain within soft inflatable materials.9Pikul J.H. Li S. Bai H. Hanlon R.T. Cohen I. Shepherd R.F. Stretchable surfaces with programmable 3D texture morphing for synthetic camouflaging skins.Science. 2017; 358: 210-214Crossref PubMed Scopus (151) Google Scholar Although LACS do not require a physical connection to external hardware for actuation, the light-based strategy described in this work does present some challenges to practically implementing these devices for real-world applications. For instance, the requirement for localized illumination or heating to actuate individual “pixels” means that LACS will always require a proximal source illumination or heat to be functional in a “real” scenario. While commercial projection systems readily offer the spatial resolution necessary for intricate patterns, they are bulky and relatively large compared with the demonstrated technology. Additionally, the performance characterization experiments described in the manuscript were completed using hydrated devices that had previously equilibrated to room temperature—a feature that could pose considerable challenges to the function of this technology in uncontrolled environments. Importantly, we should also consider the practicality of heat as a control mechanism for the many applications of cephalopod-inspired technologies. For “camouflage” applications, is it practical to generate a desired visual pattern at the expense of creating an equivalent thermal signature? In the context of wearable electronics, are the actuation temperatures required for LACs too hot for safe or comfortable use, and what is the long-term service life of a display system that is actuated by heating? These types of questions extend well beyond this very interesting demonstration of cephalopod-inspired display but are important to consider for longer-term translation of such technologies into industrial or consumer spaces. The development of multimaterial technologies capable of sensing and responding to light is paramount to accurately modeling the color and shape-shifting behaviors of cephalopods in the future. Completing these simultaneous changes rapidly (ca., milliseconds) and with low energy requirements would be transformative for creating bio-inspired adaptive display technologies. The impressive approach presented by Han et al. tackles the front end of these challenges by offering mechanical robustness, light-induced shape and color change, and design flexibility; serving as an important step toward accurate approximation of one of the primary components of active color change in cephalopods. However, considerable fundamental hurdles remain, especially when considering the challenges of translating these systems for future real-world applications. Moving forward, multifunctional and multimaterial systems like those presented here will likely play a major role in advancement toward high fidelity approximations of one of the most dynamic classes of animals in nature. This work was supported in part by the Army Research Office (Award W911NF-16-1-0455)." @default.
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• W3187627840 title "Artificial cephalopod organs for bio-inspired display: Progress in emulating nature" @default.
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