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• W36046305 abstract "Abstract Ecosystem services are benefits that humanity obtains from ecosystems. These are conditions and ecological processes through which ecosystems and the species within them sustain life. Through processes that regulate and support primary ecosystem functions, such as soil formation, oxygen production, water and nutrient cycling, pollination and regulation of pests, diseases, erosion and climate, humans derive an important service and that is to produce goods, such as food, fresh water, fuel and genetic resources. In addition there are also cultural services that are essential to human well being, such as spiritual attachments, diversity of cultures, aesthetic and inspirational values and recreation. Biodiversity can be both, a response affected by ecosystem changes as well as a factor that modifies ecosystem processes and services. Biodiversity represents the foundation of ecosystems that, through the services they provide, affect human well-being. It reflects the number, variety and variability of living organisms and includes diversity within species (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity), and between ecosystems (ecosystem diversity). Biodiversity is important in all ecosystems, including managed agricultural production systems as it provides a diversity of functional substitutability options. When an impact such as elevated temperature creates the loss of one or more species within a functional group this function can be compensated for by other species. Some species might have unique contributions to the ecosystem function and their loss would be of greater concern. In agricultural systems, biodiversity is generally altered and pest management practices, particularly those that rely on pesticides can have significant negative effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services. However, there is often sufficient functional diversity to retain pests at tolerable levels. Pesticides, biocides by design, have variable effects on the functional groups. For instance insecticides tend to have greater effects on spiders and hymenopteran parasitoids thus reducing predation and can cause “natural enemy” releases favoring pest outbreaks. Areas with heavy pesticide use will tend to have lower natural enemy biodiversity and weaker biological control services and may be vulnerability to pest invasions. Habitat manipulation techniques can positively increase natural enemy biodiversity and strengthen biological control services. However for these techniques to be effective there is need to adopt ecological engineering principles, manage pesticide use to avoid negative impact so as to maximize biological control services. Pollinators such as bees and syrphids are also vulnerable to pesticides and in parts of China pollination services in fruit orchards are performed by humans. In Europe the loss of pollinator diversity has been attributed to high pesticide usage. Agriculture will need adopt ecological engineering principles for design so as to balance the provisional services for human needs and maintain adequate biodiversity and preserve the other ecosystem services." @default.
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• W36046305 title "Biodiversity, ecosystem services and pest management" @default.
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