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• W38420309 abstract "On the Greater Mapungubwe Landscape, Later Stone Age (LSA) research has been conducted mostly in South Africa, with limited studies in neighbouring Botswana and Zimbabwe, all part of the broader landscape. In an attempt to broaden our understanding of the regional sequence, a recent study in Botswana sought to integrate finds made here with those in South Africa. This paper presents the results from one excavation, conducted at Dzombo Shelter, and relates these to finds made elsewhere on the landscape. Of particular interest is the dominance of backed stone tools between AD 900 and 1000, a period in which scrapers usually dominate the formal component of LSA assemblages, and the infrequency of exchange goods even though the site is in close proximity to farmer homesteads. I argue here that due to the various outcomes from interactions with farmers, excavating a variety of site types is required in order to achieve a holistic understanding of forager cultural change. INTRODUCTION The Greater Mapungubwe Landscape, which includes parts of Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe (Fig. 1), has a unique archaeological record. Research has mostly sought to explain the local agricultural sequence (see Huffman 2007 for a review), but there have also been a number of LSA studies (see Forssman 2014 for a recent review). These include excavations at Little Muck Shelter (Hall & Smith 2000), Balerno Shelter 3 (van Doornum 2000), Balerno Main Shelter, Balerno Shelter 2 and Tshisiku Shelter (van Doornum 2005), as well as a surface analysis of 25 LSA assemblages in the region (Forssman 2013a). Finds from the dated rockshelters mentioned above and the surface scatters show little material continuity in the forager sequence, which is partially due to interactions with local agriculturalists starting from as early as AD 350 (van Doornum 2005). To explore this lack of continuity, a study of various sites in different contexts within a largely unstudied area was undertaken. This paper presents the results from one such site, Dzombo Shelter, which yielded the largest dated LSA assemblage from northeastern Botswana. SITE DETAILS The sandstone hill (koppie) in which Dzombo is situated is on a palaeo-floodplain created by the Motloutse River, about 1.8 km south of the site, and is in an area characterised by north–south running sandstone ridges that are approximately 7 km in length, interspaced with floodplains and Kalahari sands (Alexander 1984). About 600 m southeast of Dzombo is the agriculturalist centre of Mmamagwa (see Hall 2003), which includes a hilltop occupation and a number of surrounding homesteads dating from at least AD 900 until the 20th century 182 South African Archaeological Bulletin 69 (200): 182–191, 2014 FIG. 1. Sites mentioned in the text and prominent settlements: (1) Dzombo Shelter; (2) Mmamagwa; (3) Tshisiku Shelter; (4) Balerno Main Shelter; (5) Balerno Shelter 3; (6) Balerno Shelter 2; (7) Little Muck Shelter; (8) K2 (Bambandyanalo); (9) Mapungubwe and (10) Schroda. South African Archaeological Bulletin 69 (200): 182–191, 2014 183 (Hall 2003). Behind Dzombo is a small rockshelter with herder artwork, identified based on finger-painted aprons (see Eastwood & Smith 2005; for more details see Forssman 2013a, 2014). The primary reasons for excavating the site were a) its close proximity to farmer homesteads (see Sadr 2002); b) its considerable deposit, possibly predating 2000 BP, and c) the potential evidence for interactions and regional variations that might be present at the site. METHOD Two trenches were excavated at Dzombo (Fig. 2): Trench 1, located inside the rockshelter, consisted of five 1×1 m squares, two of which were excavated (D and E). These squares were chosen because the surrounding deposit appeared intact; dry-packed stone walling protruded into Square E; a lower grinding stone lay nearby, and a large amount of surface material was present. The 1×1 m squares were excavated in quadrants and, where possible, stratigraphic units were divided into 30 mm spits. Trench 2 was set up outside the rockshelter, below the natural rock shelf, but no dates were obtained, so the results are not discussed here (see Forssman 2014 for details). STRATIGRAPHY Twenty-seven spits were excavated in Square D and 19 in Square E. Within these a series of distinct stratigraphic units were identified based on colour, compaction, composition and inclusions, using the Museum of London’s Archaeological Site Manual (1994). The first unit was labelled grey soil (GS) and is a fine sand unit with a grey/brown tint and pebbles 10 cm in length. This unit, approximately 6 cm thick, was succeeded by compact GS (CGS), which contained larger pebbles (10 cm) and was more compact than GS and about 15 cm thick. This unit overlay grey ash (GA), which was noted throughout the excavation and was the thickest (±54 cm) and most substantial unit. It is characterised by rocks, pebbles and roof spall and appears to be a hearth. The layers compact GA (CGA), grey soil 2 (GS2), compact GS 2 (CGS2), grey brown soil 3 (GBS3) and grey compact brown 3 (GCB3) were all found within GA and vary in thickness and extent. At the base of the trench was grey brown soil 2 (GBS2), which was about 15 cm thick, brownish grey in colour, loosely consolidated, and contained large rocks. The base of the deposit was not reached and it may be that additional stratigraphic units exist below GBS2 (Fig. 3; Table 1). Due FIG. 2. Dzombo Shelter site plan. The large boulders form a natural terrace (after Forssman 2013b: 68). to the extensive GA deposit and the lack of correlation between the stratigraphic units and the artefact assemblage, the assemblage will be viewed in terms of spits. The general dip of the stratigraphic units needs further discussion. On average, across the 2 m section profile, the stratigraphic layers rise from east to west by 18° with a peak in the western part followed by a sloping gradient; excavation of Square F is needed to confirm whether the slope continues. The ashy deposit suggests that there were possibly one or more hearths present. Additional stratigraphic units, identified within layers GS, GA and GBS2, are all intact and distinct, indicating little disturbance in the deposit. At present a geoarchaeological study on samples collected from the deposit is the focus of a Masters study at the University of Pretoria and will tell us more about the site’s formation." @default.
• W38420309 created "2016-06-24" @default.
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• W38420309 date "2014-01-01" @default.
• W38420309 modified "2023-09-26" @default.
• W38420309 title "Dzombo Shelter : a contribution of the Later Stone Age sequence of the Greater Mapungubwe Landscape" @default.
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