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• W413058045 abstract "More than one-half of all North American landbirds undertake long-distance migrations between temperate breeding grounds and tropical areas in the Caribbean Basin, Central America, and South America (Keast and Morton 1980). Although they spend over one-half of their annual cycle away from their breeding grounds, either en route or wintering in Neotropical areas, it is generally accepted that songbird migrants form pair bonds and copulate only after they arrive on their breeding grounds following spring migration (e.g. Nolan 1978). The occurrence of en-route copulations and perhaps even pair-bond formation prior to arrival on the breeding grounds has not been seriously considered by most ornithologists. If found, such behavior would have important implications for studying avian mating systems, testing assumptions and predictions of current sexual-selection models, and understanding the relationships among different phases of a migrant's annual cycle. This paper examines the possibility that copulations occur before migrants reach their North American breeding grounds. First, we address some of the obvious arguments against the premise that en-route copulations occur. We then describe some requirements, including anatomical and physiological, for copulations to have reproductive consequence. Finally, we discuss expectations and predictions if enroute copulations were to have reproductive consequences for male or female migrants. At the outset, it is important to distinguish between forming and maintaining a pair bond initiated during migration and en-route copulations. This paper does not directly address the former, but rather the general occurrence of en-route sexual behavior. We ask how likely is it that such behavior will have reproductive consequences, while assuming that a pair bond is formed with a mate shortly after individuals arrive on the breeding grounds (e.g. Nolan 1978). Arguments against copulating en route.-The possibility that migrants copulate before they arrive on their breeding grounds has seemed unlikely because males commonly precede females during spring migration (e.g. Ramos 1988, Yunick 1988, Chandler and Mulvihill 1990), which decreases the probability that a male would encounter a female en route. Whereas the temporal pattern of migration may be sex dependent in spring, males and females do occur together at stopover sites (Francis and Cooke 1986) and overlap exists in time of arrival on the breeding grounds (e.g. Nolan 1978, Eliason 1986; McDonald unpubl. data on Kentucky Warblers, Oporornis formosus). When migrants stopover along the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico in spring, for example, small, homospecific groups of two or three individuals are common and often consist of both sexes (Moore et al. 1990). On the grounds, as well as during migration, observations of heterosexual pairs raise the possibility that some individuals form sexual bonds during migration before they arrive on the breeding grounds (Leck 1972, Morton 1980, Greenberg 1985, Greenberg and Gradwohl 1980, Moore et al. 1990, Morton pers. comm.). Speculation about early pair bonds has been influenced by the belief that most landbird migrants fly singly at night (Balcomb 1977), decreasing the probability that members of a pair could remain together during migration (e.g. Greenberg and Gradwohl 1980, Ramos 1988). Yet, recent observations of Prothonotary Warblers (Protonotaria citrea) suggest that homospecific groups sometimes depart on a spring trans-Gulf flight from the same location, maintain sufficiently close contact while flying at night to form a homogeneous flock the next morning, and stopover together on the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico (Moore 1990). At the very least, the opportunity to copulate during migration exists. Evidence to support copulation en route.-In order to prove that en-route sexual behavior could lead to fertilization of gametes, males must produce viable sperm and females must be shown to have sperm in their cloacas. The analysis of cloacal lavages (e.g. Quay 1984, 1985a, b, 1986a, b, 1989) has revealed that some males produce mature sperm during spring migration and far from their breeding grounds (e.g. Tennessee Warbler [Vermivora peregrina], Nashville Warbler [V. ruficapilla], Palm Warbler [Dendroica palmarum], Rosebreasted Grosbeak [Pheucticus ludovicianus], and Painted Bunting [Passerina ciris]). Although the release of mature sperm is indicative of physiological readiness to breed, it need not be accompanied by ejaculation or copulatory behavior. Quay (1985b) suggested that the likelihood of sperm release in various species was related to breeding latitude and the brevity of the nesting season. Quay (1989) found indisputable evidence that in at least one migratory species copulation occurs en route. Tennessee Warblers breed in southern Canada. Sperm were found in the cloacas of females as well as males" @default.
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• W413058045 date "1993-01-01" @default.
• W413058045 modified "2023-09-23" @default.
• W413058045 title "ON THE POSSIBILITY THAT INTERCONTINENTAL LANDBIRD MIGRANTS COPULATE EN-ROUTE" @default.
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