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- W4210717071 abstract "<strong class=journal-contentHeaderColor>Abstract.</strong> The bubbles generated by breaking waves are of considerable scientific interest due to their influence on airâsea gas transfer, aerosol production, and upper ocean optics and acoustics. However, a detailed understanding of the processes creating deeper bubble plumes (extending 2â10âm below the ocean surface) and their significance for airâsea gas exchange is still lacking. Here, we present bubble measurements from the HiWinGS expedition in the North Atlantic in 2013, collected during several storms with wind speeds of 10â27âmâs<span class=inline-formula><sup>â1</sup></span>. A suite of instruments was used to measure bubbles from a self-orienting free-floating spar buoy: a specialised bubble camera, acoustical resonators, and an upward-pointing sonar. The focus in this paper is on bubble void fractions and plume structure. The results are consistent with the presence of a heterogeneous shallow bubble layer occupying the top 1â2âm of the ocean, which is regularly replenished by breaking waves, and deeper plumes which are only formed from the shallow layer at the convergence zones of Langmuir circulation. These advection events are not directly connected to surface breaking. The void fraction distributions at 2âm depth show a sharp cut-off at a void fraction of 10<span class=inline-formula><sup>â4.5</sup></span> even in the highest winds, implying the existence of mechanisms limiting the void fractions close to the surface. Below wind speeds of 16âmâs<span class=inline-formula><sup>â1</sup></span> or a wind-wave Reynolds number of <span class=inline-formula><math xmlns=http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML id=M4 display=inline overflow=scroll dspmath=mathml><mrow><msub><mi>R</mi><mi mathvariant=normal>Hw</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mn mathvariant=normal>2</mn><mo>Ã</mo><msup><mn mathvariant=normal>10</mn><mn mathvariant=normal>6</mn></msup></mrow></math><span><svg:svg xmlns:svg=http://www.w3.org/2000/svg width=68pt height=16pt class=svg-formula dspmath=mathimg md5hash=c2f0c20f367bf3a804aa063006f2ba45><svg:image xmlns:xlink=http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink xlink:href=os-18-565-2022-ie00001.svg width=68pt height=16pt src=os-18-565-2022-ie00001.png/></svg:svg></span></span>, the probability distribution of void fraction at 2âm depth is very similar in all conditions but increases significantly above either threshold. Void fractions are significantly different during periods of rising and falling winds, but there is no distinction with wave age. There is a complex near-surface flow structure due to Langmuir circulation, Stokes drift, and wind-induced current shear which influences the spatial distribution of bubbles within the top few metres. We do not see evidence for slow bubble dissolution as bubbles are carried downwards, implying that collapse is the more likely termination process. We conclude that the shallow and deeper bubble layers need to be studied simultaneously to link them to the 3D flow patterns in the top few metres of the ocean. Many open questions remain about the extent to which deep bubble plumes contribute to airâsea gas transfer. A companion paper (Czerski et al., 2022) addresses the observed bubble size distributions and the processes responsible for them." @default.
- W4210717071 created "2022-02-08" @default.
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- W4210717071 date "2022-01-27" @default.
- W4210717071 modified "2023-10-01" @default.
- W4210717071 title "Reply on RC1" @default.
- W4210717071 doi "https://doi.org/10.5194/os-2021-103-ac2" @default.
- W4210717071 hasPublicationYear "2022" @default.
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%20and%20their%20significance%20for%20air%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%93sea%20gas%20exchange%20is%20still%20lacking.%20Here%2C%20we%20present%20bubble%20measurements%20from%20the%20HiWinGS%20expedition%20in%20the%20North%20Atlantic%20in%202013%2C%20collected%20during%20several%20storms%20with%20wind%20speeds%20of%2010%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%9327%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%89m%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%89s%3Cspan%20class%3Dinline-formula%3E%3Csup%3E%C3%A2%C2%88%C2%921%3C%2Fsup%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E.%20A%20suite%20of%20instruments%20was%20used%20to%20measure%20bubbles%20from%20a%20self-orienting%20free-floating%20spar%20buoy%3A%20a%20specialised%20bubble%20camera%2C%20acoustical%20resonators%2C%20and%20an%20upward-pointing%20sonar.%20The%20focus%20in%20this%20paper%20is%20on%20bubble%20void%20fractions%20and%20plume%20structure.%20The%20results%20are%20consistent%20with%20the%20presence%20of%20a%20heterogeneous%20shallow%20bubble%20layer%20occupying%20the%20top%201%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%932%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%89m%20of%20the%20ocean%2C%20which%20is%20regularly%20replenished%20by%20breaking%20waves%2C%20and%20deeper%20plumes%20which%20are%20only%20formed%20from%20the%20shallow%20layer%20at%20the%20convergence%20zones%20of%20Langmuir%20circulation.%20These%20advection%20events%20are%20not%20directly%20connected%20to%20surface%20breaking.%20The%20void%20fraction%20distributions%20at%202%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%89m%20depth%20show%20a%20sharp%20cut-off%20at%20a%20void%20fraction%20of%2010%3Cspan%20class%3Dinline-formula%3E%3Csup%3E%C3%A2%C2%88%C2%924.5%3C%2Fsup%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%20even%20in%20the%20highest%20winds%2C%20implying%20the%20existence%20of%20mechanisms%20limiting%20the%20void%20fractions%20close%20to%20the%20surface.%20Below%20wind%20speeds%20of%2016%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%89m%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%89s%3Cspan%20class%3Dinline-formula%3E%3Csup%3E%C3%A2%C2%88%C2%921%3C%2Fsup%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%20or%20a%20wind-wave%20Reynolds%20number%20of%20%3Cspan%20class%3Dinline-formula%3E%3Cmath%20xmlns%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1998%2FMath%2FMathML%20id%3DM4%20display%3Dinline%20overflow%3Dscroll%20dspmath%3Dmathml%3E%3Cmrow%3E%3Cmsub%3E%3Cmi%3ER%3C%2Fmi%3E%3Cmi%20mathvariant%3Dnormal%3EHw%3C%2Fmi%3E%3C%2Fmsub%3E%3Cmo%3E%3D%3C%2Fmo%3E%3Cmn%20mathvariant%3Dnormal%3E2%3C%2Fmn%3E%3Cmo%3E%C3%83%C2%97%3C%2Fmo%3E%3Cmsup%3E%3Cmn%20mathvariant%3Dnormal%3E10%3C%2Fmn%3E%3Cmn%20mathvariant%3Dnormal%3E6%3C%2Fmn%3E%3C%2Fmsup%3E%3C%2Fmrow%3E%3C%2Fmath%3E%3Cspan%3E%3Csvg%3Asvg%20xmlns%3Asvg%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%20width%3D68pt%20height%3D16pt%20class%3Dsvg-formula%20dspmath%3Dmathimg%20md5hash%3Dc2f0c20f367bf3a804aa063006f2ba45%3E%3Csvg%3Aimage%20xmlns%3Axlink%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2Fxlink%20xlink%3Ahref%3Dos-18-565-2022-ie00001.svg%20width%3D68pt%20height%3D16pt%20src%3Dos-18-565-2022-ie00001.png%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3Asvg%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%2C%20the%20probability%20distribution%20of%20void%20fraction%20at%202%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%89m%20depth%20is%20very%20similar%20in%20all%20conditions%20but%20increases%20significantly%20above%20either%20threshold.%20Void%20fractions%20are%20significantly%20different%20during%20periods%20of%20rising%20and%20falling%20winds%2C%20but%20there%20is%20no%20distinction%20with%20wave%20age.%20There%20is%20a%20complex%20near-surface%20flow%20structure%20due%20to%20Langmuir%20circulation%2C%20Stokes%20drift%2C%20and%20wind-induced%20current%20shear%20which%20influences%20the%20spatial%20distribution%20of%20bubbles%20within%20the%20top%20few%20metres.%20We%20do%20not%20see%20evidence%20for%20slow%20bubble%20dissolution%20as%20bubbles%20are%20carried%20downwards%2C%20implying%20that%20collapse%20is%20the%20more%20likely%20termination%20process.%20We%20conclude%20that%20the%20shallow%20and%20deeper%20bubble%20layers%20need%20to%20be%20studied%20simultaneously%20to%20link%20them%20to%20the%203D%20flow%20patterns%20in%20the%20top%20few%20metres%20of%20the%20ocean.%20Many%20open%20questions%20remain%20about%20the%20extent%20to%20which%20deep%20bubble%20plumes%20contribute%20to%20air%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%93sea%20gas%20transfer.%20A%20companion%20paper%20(Czerski%20et%20al.%2C%202022)%20addresses%20the%20observed%20bubble%20size%20distributions%20and%20the%20processes%20responsible%20for%20them.%22){kind=link}