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• W4211254429 abstract "BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & GynaecologyVolume 124, Issue 5 p. e106-e149 RCOG Green-top GuidelineFree Access Prevention and Management of Postpartum Haemorrhage Green-top Guideline No. 52 First published: 16 December 2016 https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.14178Citations: 193AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat This is the second edition of this guideline, which was published in 2009 under the same title. The 2009 guideline was based on an earlier guideline on the management of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) developed in 1998 under the auspices of the Scottish Committee of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG) and updated in 2002.1 Executive summary of recommendations Prediction and prevention of PPH What are the risk factors for developing PPH and how can they be minimised? Risk factors Risk factors for PPH may present antenatally or intrapartum; care plans must be modified as and when risk factors arise. Grade of recommendation: ✓ Clinicians must be aware of risk factors for PPH and should take these into account when counselling women about place of delivery. Grade of recommendation: ✓ Women with known risk factors for PPH should only be delivered in a hospital with a blood bank on site. Grade of recommendation: D Minimising risk – treating antenatal anaemia Antenatal anaemia should be investigated and treated appropriately as this may reduce the morbidity associated with PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D Minimising risk – reducing blood loss at delivery Uterine massage is of no benefit in the prophylaxis of PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: A Prophylactic uterotonics should be routinely offered in the management of the third stage of labour in all women as they reduce the risk of PPH. Grade of recommendation: A For women without risk factors for PPH delivering vaginally, oxytocin (10 iu by intramuscular injection) is the agent of choice for prophylaxis in the third stage of labour. A higher dose of oxytocin is unlikely to be beneficial. Grade of recommendation: A For women delivering by caesarean section, oxytocin (5 iu by slow intravenous injection) should be used to encourage contraction of the uterus and to decrease blood loss. Grade of recommendation: B Ergometrine–oxytocin may be used in the absence of hypertension in women at increased risk of haemorrhage as it reduces the risk of minor PPH (500–1000 ml). Grade of recommendation: C For women at increased risk of haemorrhage, it is possible that a combination of preventative measures might be superior to syntocinon alone to prevent PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ Clinicians should consider the use of intravenous tranexamic acid (0.5–1.0 g), in addition to oxytocin, at caesarean section to reduce blood loss in women at increased risk of PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: A How should PPH be managed? Identification of the severity of haemorrhage Clinicians should be aware that the visual estimation of peripartum blood loss is inaccurate and that clinical signs and symptoms should be included in the assessment of PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: C Communication and multidisciplinary care Communication with the woman Communication with the patient and her birthing partner is important, and clear information of what is happening should be given from the outset. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ Who should be informed when the woman presents with PPH? Relevant staff with an appropriate level of expertise should be alerted of PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ The midwife in charge and the first-line obstetric and anaesthetic staff should be alerted when women present with minor PPH (blood loss 500–1000 ml) without clinical shock. Grade of recommendation: ✓ A multidisciplinary team involving senior members of staff should be summoned to attend to women with major PPH (blood loss of more than 1000 ml) and ongoing bleeding or clinical shock. Grade of recommendation: ✓ Resuscitation Measures for minor PPH Measures for minor PPH (blood loss 500–1000 ml) without clinical shock: Grade of recommendation: ✓ intravenous access (one 14-gauge cannula) urgent venepuncture (20 ml) for: -group and screen -full blood count -coagulation screen, including fibrinogen pulse, respiratory rate and blood pressure recording every 15 minutes commence warmed crystalloid infusion. Measures for major PPH Full protocol for major PPH (blood loss greater than 1000 ml) and continuing to bleed or clinical shock (see Appendix III): Grade of recommendation: ✓ A and B – assess airway and breathing C – evaluate circulation position the patient flat keep the woman warm using appropriate available measures transfuse blood as soon as possible, if clinically required until blood is available, infuse up to 3.5 l of warmed clear fluids, initially 2 l of warmed isotonic crystalloid. Further fluid resuscitation can continue with additional isotonic crystalloid or colloid (succinylated gelatin). Hydroxyethyl starch should not be used. the best equipment available should be used to achieve rapid warmed infusion of fluids special blood filters should not be used, as they slow infusions. Blood transfusion There are no firm criteria for initiating red cell transfusion. The decision to provide blood transfusion should be based on both clinical and haematological assessment. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ Selection of red cell units for transfusion Major obstetric haemorrhage protocols must include the provision of emergency blood with immediate issue of group O, rhesus D (RhD)-negative and K-negative units, with a switch to group-specific blood as soon as feasible. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D If clinically significant red cell antibodies are present, close liaison with the transfusion laboratory is essential to avoid delay in transfusion in life-threatening haemorrhage. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D All delivery units, especially small units without a blood bank on site, should maintain a supply of group O, RhD-negative blood. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ Intraoperative cell salvage should be considered for emergency use in PPH associated with caesarean section and with vaginal delivery. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D Blood components Transfusion of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) If no haemostatic results are available and bleeding is continuing, then, after 4 units of red blood cells, FFP should be infused at a dose of 12–15 ml/kg until haemostatic test results are known. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D If no haemostatic tests are available, early FFP should be considered for conditions with a suspected coagulopathy, such as placental abruption or amniotic fluid embolism, or where detection of PPH has been delayed. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ If prothrombin time/activated partial thromboplastin time is more than 1.5 times normal and haemorrhage is ongoing, volumes of FFP in excess of 15 ml/kg are likely to be needed to correct coagulopathy. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D Clinicians should be aware that these blood components must be ordered as soon as a need for them is anticipated, as there will always be a short delay in supply because of the need for thawing. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ Fibrinogen A plasma fibrinogen level of greater than 2 g/l should be maintained during ongoing PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: C Cryoprecipitate should be used for fibrinogen replacement. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D Transfusion of platelets During PPH, platelets should be transfused when the platelet count is less than 75 × 109/l based on laboratory monitoring. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D Is there a role for antifibrinolytic drugs? Consideration should be given to the use of tranexamic acid in the management of PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: B Is there a role for recombinant factor VIIa (rFVIIa) therapy? The routine use of rFVIIa is not recommended in the management of major PPH unless as part of a clinical trial. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ Monitoring and investigation in major PPH: what investigations should be performed and how should women be monitored? Full protocol for monitoring and investigation in major PPH (blood loss greater than 1000 ml) and ongoing haemorrhage or clinical shock: Grade of recommendation: D immediate venepuncture (20 ml) for: -cross-match (4 units minimum) -full blood count -coagulation screen, including fibrinogen -renal and liver function for baseline monitor temperature every 15 minutes continuous pulse, blood pressure recording and respiratory rate (using oximeter, electrocardiogram and automated blood pressure recording) Foley catheter to monitor urine output two peripheral cannulae, 14 gauge consider arterial line monitoring (once appropriately experienced staff available for insertion) consider transfer to intensive therapy unit once the bleeding is controlled or monitoring at high dependency unit on delivery suite, if appropriate recording of parameters on a modified early obstetric warning score (MEOWS) chart (see Appendix IV) acting and escalating promptly when abnormal scores from a MEOWS chart are observed documentation of fluid balance, blood, blood products and procedures. What is the role of the anaesthetist in the management of PPH? The management of PPH requires a multidisciplinary approach: the anaesthetist plays a crucial role in maintaining haemodynamic stability and, if necessary, in determining and administering the most appropriate method of anaesthesia. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D What methods should be employed to arrest the bleeding? Clinicians should be prepared to use a combination of pharmacological, mechanical and surgical methods to arrest PPH. These methods should be directed towards the causative factor. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D What pharmacological and mechanical strategies can be used? When uterine atony is perceived to be a cause of the bleeding, then a sequence of mechanical and pharmacological measures should be instituted in turn until the bleeding stops. Grade of recommendation: ✓ What surgical treatments can be employed to arrest the bleeding? If pharmacological measures fail to control the haemorrhage, surgical interventions should be initiated sooner rather than later. Grade of recommendation: D Intrauterine balloon tamponade is an appropriate first-line ‘surgical’ intervention for most women where uterine atony is the only or main cause of haemorrhage. Grade of recommendation: C Conservative surgical interventions may be attempted as second line, depending on clinical circumstances and available expertise. Grade of recommendation: C It is recommended that a laminated diagram of the brace suture technique be kept in theatre. Grade of recommendation: ✓ Resort to hysterectomy sooner rather than later (especially in cases of placenta accreta or uterine rupture). Grade of recommendation: C Ideally and when feasible, a second experienced clinician should be involved in the decision for hysterectomy. Grade of recommendation: ✓ How should secondary PPH be managed? In women presenting with secondary PPH, an assessment of vaginal microbiology should be performed (high vaginal and endocervical swabs) and appropriate use of antimicrobial therapy should be initiated when endometritis is suspected. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: D A pelvic ultrasound may help to exclude the presence of retained products of conception, although the diagnosis of retained products is unreliable. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: C Surgical evacuation of retained placental tissue should be undertaken or supervised by an experienced clinician. Grade of recommendation: D Risk management Training and preparation: what measures can be taken to ensure optimal management of PPH? Every maternity unit should have a multidisciplinary protocol for the management of PPH. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: ✓ All staff involved in maternity care should receive training in the management of obstetric emergencies, including the management of PPH. Grade of recommendation: B Training for PPH should be multiprofessional and include team rehearsals. [New 2016] Grade of recommendation: B All cases of PPH involving a blood loss of greater than 1500 ml should be the subject of a formal clinical incident review. Grade of recommendation: D Documentation Accurate documentation of a delivery with PPH is essential. Grade of recommendation: ✓ Debriefing An opportunity to discuss the events surrounding the obstetric haemorrhage should be offered to the woman (possibly with her birthing partner/s) at a mutually convenient time. Grade of recommendation: ✓ 1 Purpose and scope Primary postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is the most common form of major obstetric haemorrhage. The traditional definition of primary PPH is the loss of 500 ml or more of blood from the genital tract within 24 hours of the birth of a baby.2 PPH can be minor (500–1000 ml) or major (more than 1000 ml). Major can be further subdivided into moderate (1001–2000 ml) and severe (more than 2000 ml). In women with lower body mass (e.g. less than 60 kg), a lower level of blood loss may be clinically significant.3 The recommendations in this guideline apply to women experiencing a primary PPH of 500 ml or more. Secondary PPH is defined as abnormal or excessive bleeding from the birth canal between 24 hours and 12 weeks postnatally.4 This guideline also includes recommendations specific to the management of secondary PPH. Women with pre-existing bleeding disorders and women taking therapeutic anticoagulants are at increased risk of PPH; this guideline does not include specific recommendations for the management of such situations or for managing haemorrhage in women who refuse blood transfusion. Guidance on these topics is available from other sources.5-8 This guideline has been developed primarily for clinicians working in consultant-led obstetric units in the UK; recommendations may be less appropriate for other settings where facilities, resources and routine practices differ. There is increasing emphasis on the availability of births at home or in midwife-led units.9 Obstetricians and midwives should develop guidelines for the management of obstetric emergencies that may occur in the community, including PPH. This is beyond the scope of this guideline.10 This guideline is restricted in scope to the management of PPH; the management of antepartum haemorrhage is the subject of the RCOG Green-top Guideline No. 63.11 The prevention and management of PPH related to placenta praevia and placenta praevia accreta is addressed in Green-top Guideline No. 27,12 while Green-top Guideline No. 4713 provides guidance on the appropriate use of blood and blood products in obstetric practice. 2 Introduction and background epidemiology Obstetric haemorrhage remains one of the major causes of maternal death in both developed and developing countries. The 2011–13 Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity report3 identified 13 direct deaths due to obstetric haemorrhage in the UK and Ireland; the report places obstetric haemorrhage as the second leading cause of direct maternal deaths. The recommendations from the report focus on basic clinical skills, with prompt recognition of the severity of a haemorrhage and emphasise communication and teamwork in the management of these cases. A systematic review14 suggests that there may be regional variation in the prevalence of PPH. Standardisation of the measurement of PPH is recommended so that data from different regions are comparable.15 3 Identification and assessment of evidence This guideline was developed in accordance with standard methodology for producing RCOG Green-top Guidelines. The Cochrane Library (including the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects [DARE]), EMBASE, Trip, MEDLINE and PubMed (electronic databases) were searched for relevant randomised controlled trials, systematic reviews and meta-analyses. The search was restricted to articles published between 2007 and September 2015. The databases were searched using the relevant Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms, including all subheadings, and this was combined with a keyword search. Search words included ‘postpartum h(a)emorrhage’, ‘factor VII’, ‘Syntocinon’, ‘carbetocin’, ‘carboprost’, ‘oxytocics’, ‘uterotonics’, ‘B-lynch suture’, ‘uterine artery embolism’, ‘bilateral internal iliac ligation’, ‘balloon, Rusch’, ‘Sengstaken catheters’, ‘thromboelastography’, ‘thromboelastometry’, ‘fibrinogen concentrate’, ‘point of care testing’ and the search limited to humans and the English language. The National Library for Health and the National Guideline Clearinghouse were also searched for relevant guidelines and reviews. Guidelines and recommendations produced by organisations such as the British Committee for Standards in Haematology Transfusion Taskforce and national bodies were considered. Where possible, recommendations are based on available evidence and the areas where evidence is lacking are annotated as ‘good practice points’. Further information about the assessment of evidence and the grading of recommendations may be found in Appendix I. 4 Prediction and prevention of PPH 4.1 What are the risk factors for developing PPH and how can they be minimised? 4.1.1 Risk factors Risk factors for PPH may present antenatally or intrapartum; care plans must be modified as and when risk factors arise. Grade of recommendation: ✓ Clinicians must be aware of risk factors for PPH and should take these into account when counselling women about place of delivery. Grade of recommendation: ✓ Women with known risk factors for PPH should only be delivered in a hospital with a blood bank on site. Grade of recommendation: D A number of case–control studies have identified antenatal and intrapartum risk factors for PPH (see Appendix II),16-26 although most cases of PPH have no identifiable risk factors.27 These risk factors have been summarised in a 2010 review.28 Despite methodological limitations, these studies provide a guide to levels of risk, which can help clinicians in their discussions with women about setting for delivery (Table 1). The Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health29 has recommended that women with known risk factors for PPH should not be delivered in a hospital without a blood bank on site. The Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada has published a guideline on the prevention and management of PPH.30 This summarises the causes of PPH as related to abnormalities of one or more of four basic processes – ‘the four Ts’: tone, trauma, tissue and thrombin. The most common cause of PPH is uterine atony.27 Evidence level 4 Table 1. Risk factors and the associated levels of risk for PPH Risk factor The four Ts OR (95% CI) Multiple pregnancy Tone 3.30 (1.00–10.60)16 4.70 (2.40–9.10)24 Previous PPH Tone 3.60 (1.20–10.20)16 Pre-eclampsia Thrombin 5.00 (3.00–8.50)16 2.20 (1.30–3.70)31 Fetal macrosomia Tone 2.11 (1.62–2.76)20 2.40 (1.90–2.90)24 Failure to progress in second stage Tone 3.40 (2.40–4.70)23 1.90 (1.20–2.90)31 Prolonged third stage of labour Tone 7.60 (4.20–13.50)16 2.61 (1.83–3.72)20 Retained placenta Tissue 7.83 (3.78–16.22)20 3.50 (2.10–5.80)23 6.00 (3.50–10.40)24 Placenta accreta Tissue 3.30 (1.70–6.40)23 Episiotomy Trauma 4.70 (2.60–8.40)16 2.18 (1.68–2.76)20 1.70 (1.20–2.50)24 Perineal laceration Trauma 1.40 (1.04–1.87)20 2.40 (2.00–2.80)23 1.70 (1.10–2.50)24 General anaesthesia Tone 2.90 (1.90–4.50)31 4.1.2 Minimising risk – treating antenatal anaemia Antenatal anaemia should be investigated and treated appropriately as this may reduce the morbidity associated with PPH. Grade of recommendation: D Guidelines from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)32 recommend that pregnant women should be offered screening for anaemia. The British Committee for Standards in Haematology33 has produced guidelines on the investigation and management of anaemia in pregnancy. Haemoglobin (Hb) levels outside the normal UK range for pregnancy (110 g/l at first contact and 105 g/l at 28 weeks) should be investigated and iron supplementation considered if indicated. It is recommended that parenteral iron therapy should be considered antenatally for women with iron deficiency anaemia who do not respond to oral iron.10 Evidence level 4 A population-based study34 has indicated an association between antenatal anaemia (Hb less than 90 g/l) and greater blood loss at delivery and postpartum. Evidence level 3 4.1.3 Minimising risk – reducing blood loss at delivery Uterine massage is of no benefit in the prophylaxis of PPH. Grade of recommendation: A Prophylactic uterotonics should be routinely offered in the management of the third stage of labour in all women as they reduce the risk of PPH. Grade of recommendation: A For women without risk factors for PPH delivering vaginally, oxytocin (10 iu by intramuscular injection) is the agent of choice for prophylaxis in the third stage of labour. A higher dose of oxytocin is unlikely to be beneficial. Grade of recommendation: A For women delivering by caesarean section, oxytocin (5 iu by slow intravenous injection) should be used to encourage contraction of the uterus and to decrease blood loss. Grade of recommendation: B Ergometrine–oxytocin may be used in the absence of hypertension in women at increased risk of haemorrhage as it reduces the risk of minor PPH (500–1000 ml). Grade of recommendation: C For women at increased risk of haemorrhage, it is possible that a combination of preventative measures might be superior to syntocinon alone to prevent PPH. Grade of recommendation: ✓ Clinicians should consider the use of intravenous tranexamic acid (0.5–1.0 g), in addition to oxytocin, at caesarean section to reduce blood loss in women at increased risk of PPH. Grade of recommendation: A Uterine massage A Cochrane review35 analysed the effectiveness of uterine massage after birth, and before or after delivery of the placenta, or both, to prevent PPH. Two randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were included and the review found no significant difference between groups. Evidence level 1+ Management of the third stage of labour Various Cochrane reviews have addressed prophylaxis in the third stage of labour for women delivering vaginally.35-38 These have established that both active management and the use of prophylactic uterotonics in the third stage of labour reduce the risk of PPH. Active management of the third stage of labour involves the use of interventions (including the use of uterotonics, early clamping of the umbilical cord and controlled cord traction) to expedite delivery of the placenta with the aim of reducing blood loss. In expectant management, signs of placental separation are awaited and the placenta is delivered spontaneously. A Cochrane systematic review39 found that, for women at mixed levels of risk of bleeding, active management showed a reduction in the average risk of maternal primary haemorrhage at time of birth (more than 1000 ml; average risk ratio [RR] 0.34, 95% CI 0.14–0.87) and maternal Hb less than 90 g/l following birth (average RR 0.50, 95% CI 0.30–0.83). Evidence level 1++ However, active management results in a lower birthweight, reflecting a lower blood volume from early cord clamping.39 A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials40 found that delaying clamping for at least 2 minutes is beneficial to the newborn and that the benefits extend into infancy. Therefore, active management of the third stage that includes routine early clamping of the umbilical cord can no longer be recommended. A detailed consideration of the literature relating to the timing of cord clamping can be found in RCOG Scientific Impact Paper No. 14.41 Guidance from NICE9 recommends that the umbilical cord should not be clamped earlier than 1 minute from delivery of the baby if there are no concerns over cord integrity or the baby's wellbeing. Evidence level 1+ Oxytocin and ergometrine–oxytocin McDonald and colleagues' meta-analysis36 addressed prophylactic ergometrine–oxytocin versus oxytocin for the third stage of labour. This review indicated that ergometrine–oxytocin (Syntometrine®, Alliance, Chippenham, Wiltshire, UK), oxytocin 5 iu and oxytocin 10 iu have similar efficacy in preventing PPH in excess of 1000 ml. Using the definition of PPH as blood loss of at least 500 ml, ergometrine–oxytocin was associated with a small reduction in the risk of PPH (Syntometrine® versus oxytocin any dose; OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.71–0.95). There were major differences between ergometrine–oxytocin and oxytocin alone in the adverse effects of nausea and vomiting, and elevation of blood pressure, with ergometrine–oxytocin carrying a five-fold increased risk (OR 4.92, 95% CI 4.03–6.00). Thus, the advantage of a reduction in the risk of minor PPH needs to be weighed against the adverse effects associated with the use of ergometrine–oxytocin. Evidence level 1++ An RCT,42 using a primary outcome of any treatment of uterine atony or haemorrhage, assessed whether or not a higher dose of oxytocin after vaginal delivery was more effective than a low-dose regimen in preventing PPH after a vaginal delivery. Compared with 10 iu, administering 40 iu or 80 iu of prophylactic oxytocin did not reduce overall PPH treatment when given in 500 ml over 1 hour for vaginal delivery. Evidence level 1+ Prostaglandins The use of prostaglandins for the prevention of PPH has been the subject of two Cochrane reviews.37, 38 Neither intramuscular prostaglandins (such as carboprost, a 15-methyl prostaglandin F2α analogue) nor misoprostol (a prostaglandin E1 analogue given orally or sublingually) were preferable to conventional injectable uterotonics (oxytocin and/or ergometrine) for routine prophylaxis.37 Furthermore, another systematic review43 concluded that oxytocin is superior to misoprostol in the prevention of PPH. Evidence level 1++ Appraisal of the evidence from both the Cochrane reviews, together with consideration of standard practice in the UK, suggests that, for women delivering vaginally, oxytocin 10 iu by intramuscular injection is the regimen of choice for prophylaxis in the third stage of labour. Intramuscular oxytocin should be administered with the birth of the anterior shoulder, or immediately after the birth of the baby and before the cord is clamped and cut. This strategy has been endorsed in the NICE intrapartum care guideline.9 Evidence level 1+ Carbetocin A Cochrane review44 has addressed the use of a longer-acting oxytocin derivative, carbetocin, in the prevention of PPH. Carbetocin is licensed in the UK specifically for the indication of prevention of PPH in the context of caesarean delivery. Use of carbetocin resulted in a statistically significant reduction in the need for further uterotonics compared with oxytocin for those undergoing a caesarean, but not for vaginal delivery. However, there were no statistically significant differences between carbetocin and oxytocin in terms of risk of PPH. Evidence level 1++ Guidelines from the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada30 recommend that carbetocin (100 micrograms given as an intravenous bolus over 1 minute) should be used for the prevention of PPH in elective caesarean deliveries. Randomised trials45-50 have compared different uterotonics (oxytocin, ergometrine–oxytocin, misoprostol, carbetocin and 15-methyl prostaglandin F2α) for prophylaxis in women delivering by caesarean section. Appraisal of the evidence from these trials, together with consideration of standard practice in the UK, led the development group for the NICE caesarean section guideline51 to recommend oxytocin 5 iu by slow intravenous injection for prophylaxis in the context of caesarean delivery. Evidence level 1+ Tranexamic acid The use of tranexamic acid in the prevention of PPH in women considered to be at low risk of PPH was addressed in a Cochrane review.52 This found that blood loss greater than 400 or 500 ml was less common in women who received tranexamic acid in addition to the usual uterotonic agent after vaginal birth or caesarean section in a dosage of 1 or 0.5 g intravenously. Tranexamic acid was effective in decreasing the incidence of blood loss greater than 1000 ml in women who had undergone caesarean section (RR 0.43, 95% CI 0.23–0.78; four studies; 1534 women), but not vaginal birth. Mean blood loss until 2 hours postpartum was lower in the group of women who received intravenous tranexamic acid postpartum (mean difference −77.79 ml; 95% CI −97.95 to −57.64; five studies; 1186 women). The authors of the Cochrane review on the use of tranexamic acid in the prevention of PPH conclude that further studies are required to investigate the risk of serious adverse effects, including thromboembolic events, and the use of tranexamic acid in women considered to be at high risk of PPH (see section 5.3.6). Evidence level 1++ 5 How should PPH be managed? 5.1 Id" @default.
• W4211254429 created "2022-02-13" @default.
• W4211254429 date "2016-12-16" @default.
• W4211254429 modified "2023-10-05" @default.
• W4211254429 title "Prevention and Management of Postpartum Haemorrhage" @default.
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