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• W4234921958 abstract "What are nudibranchs? Also known as sea slugs, nudibranchs are soft-bodied, often colourful, marine snails that lack a shell. Nudibranchs — the name is derived from ‘naked gills’ in Latin and Greek — comprise over 3000 species that inhabit a very wide range of environments from shallow temperate and tropical reefs, to Antarctica and even hydrothermal vents. Nudibranchs form an order within the Heterobranchia, a major lineage of snails (gastropods), which also includes land snails. All nudibranchs are obligatory cross fertilizing simultaneous hermaphrodites. The smallest are microscopic and the largest can grow to over half a metre. What do they eat? Nudibranchs exploit a wide range of food sources, including sponges, soft corals, anemones, ascidians and bryozoans. The diet of individual species tends to be highly specialised, which is why they don’t make ideal inhabitants of home aquaria. Like other snails and slugs nudibranchs use a ‘radula’ to eat their prey. The toothed radula is everted in a buccal bulb onto the prey where it rasps off prey tissue that is drawn into an alimentary canal for digestion. Some nudibranchs no longer use a radula and instead suck out prey after first pre-digesting its tissue with injected enzymes. Carnivorous Melibe species have modified their heads to make a large hood, which they use to capture mainly crustaceans (Figure 1). A few species also eat other nudibranchs. In contrast, solar-powered nudibranchs acquire nutrients from symbiotic zooxanthellae, which they acquire directly from their diet of hard or soft corals. Many species have evolved ways of ‘farming’ these zooxanthellae, and often house them in specialised ducts of their digestive gland. How do they defend themselves? Without a shell for physical protection, nudibranchs use many methods to stay safe. Simple adaptations include reinforcing their soft tissue with spicules or toughened skin. Many species use chemicals obtained from their diet and stored in outer body parts as defenses against potential predators. Species from the genus Chromodoris selectively store one very toxic compound in their mantle rim. In some cases, nudibranchs can also alter defensive compounds to enhance their biological activity, and de novo biosynthesis of defensive metabolites has been reported for several species. One of the most intriguing defense mechanisms is the capture and retention of biologically active nematocysts, the stinging cells of cnidarians, such as sea anemones. This unique defense has evolved multiple times in different animal groups, but is most common in aeolid nudibranchs (over 600 species). Once consumed, nematocysts are transferred to a cnidosac, which are located on the tips of long finger-like outgrowths, called cerata. In fact, nudibranch defenses are so good that we actually know little about their predators. Why are their chemical defences so interesting? The chemical diversity in nudibranchs is extensive and many novel compounds have been discovered with diverse biological activities, such as antimalarial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. For example, the drug Zalypsis exhibits high antitumour activity in cells of breast, prostate and renal cancers and was derived from a compound found in the nudibranch Jorunna funebris. For evolutionary questions, secondary metabolites in the Antarctic slug species-complex Doris kerguelenensis correlate significantly with cryptic species identified by DNA data. This suggests that selection on chemical defenses is involved in driving speciation in this group. Are all nudibranchs colourful? Many nudibranchs are known for the bright colourful patterns displayed to warn predators of their chemical defences (aposematism). However, other species closely match the substrate to avoid detection (camouflage). Nudibranchs may hide from predators by matching the colour of their dietary sponge or use disruptive colouration to break up their body outline. Some also keep brightly coloured parts curled up out of sight, only revealing them when threatened to scare away predators. In contrast to other animals that display warning signals, nudibranchs have very simple eyes and are presumably unable to detect their own colour patterns. Therefore, their colourful displays only seem to serve as warning displays for predators and not as signals to each other during interactions, such as courtship. What else is weird and wonderful about nudibranchs? Some species, such as the Spanish dancer, Hexabranchus sanguineus, can swim, either by flexing their bodies from side to side or by creating dorsal and ventral undulating motions. The highland dancer, Pleurobranchus membranaceus, can even swim upside down. Intriguingly, the neural circuitry for swimming can be quite different, but result in the same swimming behaviour, or be the same, but result in different behaviours. Another species of nudibranch, Chromodoris reticulata, has the only known disposable penis in the animal kingdom. This species sheds its penis after each copulation and can replenish the organ rapidly by extruding more of the internally compressed organ and copulate again within 24 hours. The only known species of nudibranch to display parental care is the aeolid Pteraeolidia ianthina. Adults encircle newly-laid egg masses and may guard singly or in groups. This extraordinary behaviour presumably could evolve as the adults get nutrition from a dinoflagellate symbiont, and thus don’t need to move away from the eggs to feed." @default.
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• W4234921958 date "2018-01-01" @default.
• W4234921958 modified "2023-09-30" @default.
• W4234921958 title "Nudibranchs" @default.
• W4234921958 doi "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.060" @default.
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