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• W4384304804 abstract "Adrianna Link, Abigail Shelton, and Patrick Spero’s edited volume, Indigenous Languages and the Promise of Archives, is a treasure trove of information and strategies for scholars of Indigenous languages and archives, and for Indigenous language learners, tribal communities, and institutions such as museums, libraries, and archives. As Brian Carpenter clarifies in the preface, the book emerges from a 2016 conference, “Across Time and Space: Endangered Languages, Cultural Revitalization, and the Work of History,” and its three editors are or have been affiliated with the American Philosophical Society (APS). Yet while the book begins with APS, the contributors engage with diverse institutions, from the Beinecke Rare Books and Manuscripts Library to the Smithsonian Institution to the Minnesota History Center, and the collection discusses Indigenous communities and languages from across North America, including Anishinaabemowin, Cherokee, Dakota, Diidxazá, Gwich’in, Heiltsuk, Hopi, Maliseet, Menominee, Mi’kmaw, Niimíipuu, Oneida, Plains Indian sign language, Penobscot, Upper St’át’imc, and Yuchi. The project thus succeeds in its “call for mindful communication across customary silos of institution, disciplinary training, community identity, and local political alignment on the place of language revitalization in envisioned futures” (5). Given the broad scope of institutional sites and community needs, Indigenous Languages and the Promise of Archives holds a wealth of resources, strategies, and troubleshooting for language learners, institutions, and scholars. The volume discusses how archives and collections engage with Indigenous communities and also considers the role archives can play in language revitalization work for those communities whose records they hold, even when such records are imperfect.Through Carpenter’s preface, the volume begins with an accounting of the APS’s relationship to Indigenous peoples, lands, and records, and it traces researchers of Indigenous languages—spanning from Thomas Jefferson’s interest in collecting Indigenous language materials during his tenure as APS president to the 2014 creation of the Center for Native American and Indigenous Research. In the collection’s introduction, Regna Darnell acknowledges that even though practices of collection in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth century often came through violence and duplicity, these materials can still benefit contemporary Indigenous communities who are using colonial records to aid language learning and to recover cultural knowledge. These opening provocations ask us to remember the violent colonial histories of archival collection, which continue to distance Indigenous communities from cultural materials and knowledges, while also seeing how such institutions might benefit contemporary Indigenous communities. As Carpenter writes, “Archives, like the materials that reside in them, are not passive entities . . . rather than thinking solely in terms of people trying to find knowledge in the archives, we should also see . . . that the knowledge in the archives is itself trying to find the people it needs” (xv). This sentiment bears out in several of the collection’s chapters, including Lisa Conathan’s chapter on the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University where archivists enlisted the expertise of Cherokee and Mi’kmaw speakers and researchers to identify and clarify what materials the archive holds with greater accuracy. Darnell also calls on archives “to cede at least some of their authority as ‘experts’ and learn to listen to unfamiliar and often uncomfortable perspectives arising from different, community-based experience” (2). The opening preface and introduction thus consider what roles archives can and should have in Indigenous language revitalization projects, setting up the book’s six sections, which link distinct projects through shared questions about decolonizing archives toward Indigenous language revitalization, considering landscape and local knowledge as integral to language education, and considering how collaboration can enrich revitalization projects.The book’s first section, “Decolonizing Archives,” includes work by Jane Anderson and James E. Francis Sr., Richard A. Grounds, and Lisa Conathan, with opening commentary by Robert J. Miller. Taken together, these chapters deftly trace the colonial origins of Indigenous language materials and the ways in which even contemporary archival institutions and US copyright law continue to distance Indigenous communities from their own language materials. In chapter 1, Anderson and Francis discuss the work of the Penobscot Nation’s Cultural and Historic Preservation Committee to revitalize Penobscot language, providing strategies for using a non-Native created Penobscot dictionary to bring language back to the community while also addressing how US copyright law continues “dispossession of Indigenous knowledges” by enabling institutions rather than Indigenous communities themselves to hold copyright over language materials (44). Grounds similarly argues that “the archival system . . . was set up and maintained under a regime of intellectual colonialism” that reinforces scholarly control over language materials (66). Tracing the recording of Yuchi across institutions such as the APS, Grounds notes that contemporary funding schemes encourage further recording of language materials by scholars rather than supporting community-led revitalization efforts. Whereas recordings of Yuchi speakers can aid in revitalization efforts, Grounds also notes the difficulties of using these materials that are spread across institutions and need to be vetted by elders for mislabeling or that were not collected or handled according to community protocols and therefore must not be used, “stand[ing] in contrast to the archival process in which the maintenance of the gathered materials is more important than the cultural needs of surviving Indigenous communities” (68). Conathan likewise discusses hurdles for institutions to connect materials with the communities whose records they hold, noting that the Beinecke library is far removed from Cherokee communities in Oklahoma and North Carolina and that Beinecke staff may not hold proper knowledge of Cherokee language materials. By tracing the Transcribe@Yale project and outreach efforts to Cherokee and Mi’kmaw communities, Conathan notes the stark differences between the library’s Cherokee and Mi’kmaw language materials, demonstrating that a one-size-fits-all approach to community engagement across these collections is not possible. The chapters in section 1 offer rich readings of how both institutions and communities navigate the use of archives for language learning, pointing to how institutions can work to heed Darnell’s call to “cede . . . some of their authority as ‘experts’” to Indigenous communities.Section 2, “Revitalization Tools,” includes a commentary by Bethany Wiggin and chapters by Jeffrey Davis and Jennifer Carpenter, Annie Guerin, Michelle Kaczamarek, Gerry Lawson, Kim Lawson, Lisa P. Nathan, and Mark Turin. Building on the previous section’s discussion of how distinct communities have different needs, Carpenter et al. suggest “locally contingent” tools and argue that open-access policies may conflict with “Indigenous understandings of the responsibilities that accompany traditional knowledge” and that may not be able “to be shared through an open portal” (126). Tracing many different digital tools across a variety of communities, the chapter ends with insights on how language projects should engage and benefit community partners, reiterating the point that funding bodies should look beyond research output and technological development to instead see how these projects are accessed by their communities. The section closes with Davis’s discussion of American Indian Sign Language records at the APS. Focusing specifically on Plains Indian Sign Language (PISL), Davis demonstrates how archival records and films can indicate when and how PISL was used, and could be used in the future, to revitalize signed languages.Part 3, “Power and Language,” frames archival records as evidence of settler colonial power over Indigenous peoples while also offering approaches to rereading such records to highlight Indigenous resistance. Sean P. Harvey traces how knowledge of Native languages circulated in white philological circles, enabling white philologists to win prizes, cash, and institutional positions for extracting Native languages and knowledge from their communities. Yet even within this extractive paradigm, Harvey accounts for the numerous reasons Native peoples could have willingly engaged with white researchers. Similarly, essays by Anne Keary and Gwen N. Westerman and Glenn M. Wasicuna demonstrate methods of reading colonial texts for Indigenous voices. Keary’s reading of a Nez Perce primer, Numipuain Shapahitamanash Timash, argues that while the Niimíipuu primer was created to enforce religious doctrine and “correct” behavior, the primer at times also reproduces Indigenous knowledges and thus cannot be read as merely a colonial text. Westerman and Wasicuna offer another case study as they highlight a forthcoming volume of English translations of Dakota peoples during the United States–Dakota War, which allows for “a diversity of perspectives of Dakota people” writing in their own language. This project provides a model for other scholars or nations to conduct similar work using Indigenous language archives.In part 4, “Landscape and Language,” Sarah Carmen Moritz and Bernard C. Perley, Margaret Ann Noodin, and Cary Miller consider the relationship between language and land with opening commentary by Michael Silverstein. Both chapters provide enlightening case studies for engaging archival materials through community-based principles. Moritz discusses the Papt ku Gwenis (Gwenis Forever) project, which seeks to restore not only traditional stories of Gwenis but also knowledges offered by such stories. The project thus asks participants to tell stories of how the local landscape and fish population has shifted over time, moving beyond “a static written version” found in the archive while also recording contemporary language use (335). Moritz frames this and other such projects as “promising decolonial practices for revitalizing language, lakes, and livelihoods that may inspire future initiatives and generations” (309). Perley et al. describe a cocreated installation, Experiencing Native North America, which orients viewers toward experiencing Indigenous conceptions of time and history. Translating the English proverb “There is no time like the present” into Anishinaabemowin and Maliseet, the authors consider how the “tension between the kinds of relationships that settler-colonial society has with language, time, and action . . . create challenges for American Indians in approximating similar experiences,” thereby revealing that “all translations are trans-relations that emphasize living languages, landscapes, and histories” (352). The installation thus attempts to trans-relate Wisconsin’s Indigenous histories through the language, perspectives, and landscapes of tribal communities in Wisconsin.The book’s final two sections, “Creative Collaborations” and “Transforming Collecting,” each offer powerful case studies that demonstrate how careful and responsible collaborative research can aid community language programs. Much like Keary’s reading of Nez Perce primers, Sara Snyder Hopkins offers a reading of the Cherokee Singing Book, which foregrounds “Cherokee Indigenous conceptualizations of space and sound,” which “retain semantic connections to pre-Christian Cherokee epistemologies despite the text being a product” of Christianization efforts (381). Kayla Begay, Justin Spence, and Cheryl Tuttle similarly discuss a seemingly “sleeping” language, Wailaki, and provide a model for contemporary speakers to use. Engaging questions comparable to those in Grounds’s discussion of Yuchi language materials, the authors highlight the point that even as there is a large record of Wailaki, this material is imperfect, as it consists primarily of written documents that often feature gaps in language or incorrect translations. Nevertheless, the authors model a project of “teaching while learning,” a project that transformed classroom space into a collaborative and critical process (416). In the book’s final section, Craig Mishler and Kenneth Frank record Gwich’in speakers’ stories of hunting and butchering caribou, as well as “a number of traditional Gwich’in folktales about caribou” (462). The chapter, in part, models a project similar to Papt ku Gwenis (Gwenis Forever), which is discussed by Moritz, but also offers strategies for troubleshooting translation work through collaboration. Gwyneira Isaac discusses the “Recovering Voices” program at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History. Tracing the troubling history of Natural History museums and the Smithsonian Institution, Isaac nonetheless demonstrates how institutions can facilitate revitalization efforts that go beyond written documents and can account for material culture such as canoes, beadwork, and textiles to recover “both language and knowledge revitalization” (450). This chapter again emphasizes the importance of “meet[ing] the diverse needs of Indigenous communities” (450).Indigenous Languages and the Promise of Archives features a wealth of experience and strategies for language learners, scholars, and institutions alike. While projects described in each chapter are highly individual, this aspect of the text demonstrates the collection’s arguments that language revitalization efforts must engage with the needs of each community rather than using a one-size-fits-all approach. Ultimately, this volume will be of interest to many different stakeholders—from scholars of Indigenous languages and Indigenous archives, to institutions seeking to transform their approach to Indigenous-language materials in partnership with Indigenous communities, to individual language learners and community educators working with imperfect records. For scholars of American literature, the volume provides important context for understanding the creation of Indigenous language archives and the varying levels of reliability that must be carefully considered when we approach Indigenous language texts." @default.
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