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• W4385541042 abstract "High-Technology Calculation in the Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Business and Government ARTHUR L. NORBERG Information-handling techniques changed dramatically in the last quarter of the 19th century with the introduction of mechanical contrivances for counting and for analyzing data. Calculators could perform all four basic arithmetical functions;1 bookkeeping machines, similar in most respects to calculators, could generate various types of ledgers; and tabulating systems could analyze data stored on punched cards.2 The effect of the tabulating system was substantially different from that of other business machines, such as desk calculators, Dr. Norberg is director of the Charles Babbage Institute and associate professor in the Program in History of Science and Technology at the University of Minnesota. He is grateful to William Aspray, Martin Campbell-Kelly, and I. Bernard Cohen for many helpful suggestions. Research for this article was part of a larger project supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities (RO-21098-85) and the National Science Foundation (SES-8420481), whose generosity is gratefully acknowledged. 'The basic arithmetical functions were difficult to handle mechanically. Addition involved two distinct operations: the addition of digits and the carrying of figures. Various techniques were devised for these two operations. Multiplication was essentially repeated addition. Division was very cumbersome and was analogous to ordinary long division. Subtraction often involved a switch for reversing the motion of the main shaft but keeping the rotation of the handle constant. In business calculations, credits were entered as nines complements and debits as ordinary numbers, so that subtraction was not done directly. According to I. Bernard Cohen, at the beginning of the 20th century the scale with which mechanical calculators were used shifted. It was the introduction of the keyboard and the key-driven machines, plus the high level of reliability, that made them so generally acceptable. For details on the operation of calculators, see E. M. Horsburgh, ed., Handbook of the Napier Tercentenary Celebration or Modern Instru­ ments and Methods of Calculation (1914), Section D, vol. 3 of the Charles Babbage Institute Reprint Series for the History of Computing (Los Angeles, 1982). See also D. Baxandall, “Calculating Machines and Instruments,” in Catalogue of the Collections in the Science Museum (London, 1926); and “Instruments et machines a calculer,” Catalogue du Musee, Section A (Paris: Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, 1942). Tor a discussion of the introduction of these mechanical devices, see James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1986).© 1990 by the Society for the History of Technology. All rights reserved. 0040-165X/90/3104-0002$01.00 753 754 Arthur L. Norberg because of its contributions to data analysis and its role in preparing the way for the more comprehensive computation device, the elec­ tronic digital computer. Tabulator systems became an integral part of business and government practice in the period after 1920. And in the 1930s, with the advent of the Social Security system, ties between business and government were cemented as more and more of the same data were gathered by each for different purposes. For exam­ ple, business uses of data facilitated the transition to wage and tax reporting demanded by the government to administer the Social Security program. Tabulators became a necessity in defense plants during World War II. After the war, business and government sought electronic computers more readily because of their experience with tabulating machines. Yet, for the most part, recent histories of comput­ ing ignore not only this precursor role but also tabulators themselves.3 These histories do address the development of calculators and the work of 19th-century computing figures, primarily Charles Babbage and Herman Hollerith. They call attention to the introduction of punched card machinery in the Census Bureau and, sometimes, to the increasing significance of International Business Machines. But they leave the impression that the significance of punched card machinery is limited to Hollerith’s initial invention. They discuss the introduction but not the growth and diffusion of the technology, perhaps because of an implicit interest only in “firsts.” To be sure, James Cortada’s study offers an array of statistics about business machines in the United States between 1920..." @default.
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• W4385541042 date "1990-10-01" @default.
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• W4385541042 title "High-Technology Calculation in the Early 20th Century: Punched Card Machinery in Business and Government" @default.
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