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• W51087350 abstract "Learning and failing to learn in immediate memory C. Philip Beaman (c.p.beaman@reading.ac.uk) Department of Psychology, University of Reading Earley Gate, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AL, UK Jan P. Roer (Jan.Roeer@uni-duesseldorf.de) Department of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-Universitat Dusseldorf, Germany is reduced or reversed if participants are asked to think of semantic links between words prior to presentation of the words (Campoy & Baddeley, 2008) and, similarly, the effect of irrelevant sound is eliminated when instructions are given to recall by category membership rather than in serial order (Perham, Banbury & Jones, 2007). The two effects are also related in the disputed claim that irrelevant speech eliminates the word-length effect (Neath, Surprenant & LeCompte, 1998; Tremblay, Macken & Jones, 2000). It is not clear, however, whether individuals can spontaneously, or as a result of learning, avoid the detrimental effects associated with short-term storage (such as those of word-length or irrelevant sound) by shifting away from a phonological loop-type structure onto some other form of memory. This question is of particular interest because failure to find such effects under particularly exacting memory loads has been taken as an indication that the encoding of those memory loads has been strategically- shifted away from phonological storage onto other forms of memory and hence the results of these experiments have been taken as not applicable to the phonological loop construct (Baddeley, 2000; Baddeley & Larsen, 2003, 2007; Campoy & Baddeley, 2008; Larsen & Baddeley, 2003). If there is no evidence for learned strategies that bypass irrelevant sound/word-length effects then the results of these experiments will need to be reinterpreted and their implications reconsidered. It is also not clear in what ways the basic pattern of performance might be affected by repeated practice and learning. A general improvement due to practice might be anticipated but it is not obvious what is learned and how this might manifest itself (e.g., will the improvement be centered on the earlier items and hence reflect some kind of improvement in rehearsal/ consolidation?) Nor, finally, is it clear how the word-length and irrelevant sound effects might interact with each other and with learning and practice. The account of irrelevant sound disruption provided by the feature model for example (Neath, 2000), involves two separate processes. Firstly, it suggests that the effect of changes-in-state should be considered as a dual- task cost incurred by dividing attention between relevant and irrelevant streams. As such, one would also expect a reduction in the size of the effect if, but only if, opportunity is given to learn to dual-task effectively. To date, appropriate studies have not been carried out to test the dual-task cost explanation. Passive listening to the speech in Abstract Two experiments examine the effect of regular feedback on the appearance of the word-length and the irrelevant sound effects in immediate memory. A reliable effect of learning was observed but both effects persisted across multiple learning trials, contrary to suggestions that they could be diminished either by feedback-inspired strategy change or by dual-task learning. Learning improved performance most noticeably at the end of the serial position curve but there was no sign that the irrelevant speech eliminated the word-length effect at any stage of learning, consistent with Tremblay et al. (2000) but inconsistent with Neath et al. (1998). Implications for immediate memory effects, and for models of intra- individual variation in immediate memory, are considered. Keywords: Immediate (“working”) memory; irrelevant speech; word-length. Introduction The relationship between immediate recall and long-term learning is of long-standing interest in cognitive psychology (Thorn & Page, 2009). The structure of immediate memory (sometimes known as “working memory”), at least in the verbal domain, is defined by a number of well-documented effects which are presumed to uniquely identify the involvement of particular mechanisms such as the phonological loop (Baddeley, 1986) in any immediate or working memory task. Two such effects are the word-length effect and the irrelevant sound effect. The word-length effect (Baddeley, Thomson & Buchanan, 1975) refers to the finding that immediate recall of longer words is worse than immediate recall of similarly sized lists of shorter words. The dominant explanation of the effect is that immediate memory is restricted by the time it takes to rehearse by articulation a to-be-recalled list (Baddeley et al., 1975). The irrelevant sound effect (Beaman & Jones, 1997) refers to the finding that, in the presence of noise (usually speech), immediate memory performance is reduced. To produce this result, the speech or sound usually has to change-in-state or, in other words, abruptly alter in pitch or other characteristics. One account states that changes in state within the irrelevant sound perturb episodic rehearsal of the to-be-recalled material (Jones & Macken, 1993) whilst other widely-held theories suggest an involuntary division of attentional resources between to-be-recalled and irrelevant material. Both effects can be mediated by instruction in strategy. For example, the word-length effect" @default.
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• W51087350 title "Learning and failing to learn within immediate memory" @default.
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