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• W62081681 abstract "The education reform movement throughout the United States has generated new concepts and new theories about how teachers teach and how students learn (White, 1989). Yet, there is no one theory about the psychology of pedagogy that we can identify and teach with confidence that others are wrong. From California to the Carolinas, from Maine to Texas there is a revolution taking place in education. Parents and taxpayers are demanding a more effective pedagogy for their children and local school districts. Governors and state legislators are intruding into the field of professional education with impunity, passing state laws relating to the competence of teachers, to the management of the classroom and its curriculum content, as well as relating to the control of education by the budget processes. A study of the history and systems of the psychology of learning is substantive and complex, but the controversy over what is learning and what are the products of the learning process is able to be described with a brief history of research dating back to the Wundt Laboratories at the University of Leipzig (1979) and to the psychology classrooms at Harvard University under William James (1875). In Germany as well as in the United States there was a movement in academe away from: 1) the interpretation of mental states, 2) a philosophic consideration of the intellect and will, and 3) the belief that God alone was the determiner of the universe and the activities of men. Spurred on by the research of Charles Darwin and the interpretation of evolution in the Origin of Species (1859), scientists placed emphasis on survival as adaption to the environment and placed the responsibility for meaningful change on the human race rather than merely upon God. American psychologists pushed further away from a philosophic view of man and his learning. In 1883 one of William James' students, G. Stanley Hall, published the first child development textbook, The Contents of Children's Minds. From 1890-1900 there was unique period of psychology in America because of the scholarship of William James, John Dewey, G. Stanley Hall, James Cattell, and Edward Lee Thorndike. Before the advent of behaviorism (about 1900), the two dominant forces in psychology were structuralism from Wilhelm Wundt's writings and functionalism and pragmatism from John Dewey's writings. Dewey was a student of William James at Harvard. Since these two early theories lacked a precise and well defined research methodology, they only set the stage for behaviorism, the first psychological perspective to have a marked impact on our understanding of the psychology of learning. We can't discard the work of William James and his students as inconsequential, but their era passed in history. One of the greatest contributions of William James and early American psychology was his little book (1898), Talks to Teachers. In an outstanding outline of pedagogy in fifteen chapters, James states a basic principle for all times, Teaching is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediary inventive mind must make the application, by using its originality (James, 1898, pp 23-24). In the period of development from 1900 to 1960, there were numerous theorists who contributed to the rise of behaviorism in the psychology of learning. These early theorists, e.g., Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, and Skinner, were S-R theorists with an emphasis on behaviorism. The S-R symbols referred to stimulus-response methodology. A stimulus has been the term to indicate any energy change in the environment. Response is a reaction to a stimulus. The S-R paradigm indicated that the stimulus-response description pointed to a causal mode without any mediation, or thinking, or feeling between the stimulus and the response. The work of the early behaviorists was predominantly with rats, dogs, cats and pigeons. As we look back on these theorists and their work, we call them experimental psychologists. …" @default.
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• W62081681 date "1993-06-22" @default.
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• W62081681 title "From S-R to S-O-R: What Every Teacher Should Know" @default.
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