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• W70115279 abstract "ROOT CROPS FORMED THE BASIS OF SUBSISTENCE in the majority of prehistoric Pacific Island agrosystems. Besides yams (Dioscorea spp.), the most important domesticate was taro (Colocasia esculenta), an ancient cultigen, and one inextricably linked with the development of Oceanian societies (Greenwell 1947; Spier 1951). This starchy tuber was the staple food in the diet of many Islanders, and was further infused with ceremonial and ritual significance. In Fiji, root crops such as taro are categorized in dietary typology as kakana dina (true food), and no meal is deemed complete without them (Pollock 1986:108). Also, the presentation of huge amounts of food by subservient local groups in customary tribute to more powerful polities was commonplace and expected. Yams and taro, along with turtles, were the standard components of these mandatory contributions. As political integration and social stratification proceeded, tributary requirements increased, thereby exerting pressure on food-production capabilities. Agricultural intensification--the increase of labor inputs to a given area of land--was generally induced by some combination of social and environmental factors. The process may have occurred on Pacific Islands for various reasons, including the necessity for greater yields to support growing populations; the culturally determined requirement for surplus production; or simply the need to overcome microclimatic and agronomic constraints (Brookfield 1972). Whatever the impetus behind it, increased agricultural intensity often resulted in dramatic and durable modifications to the environment. Yam mounds became a distinctive feature of agricultural landscapes in certain parts of Oceania; and intensive taro production typically assumed several forms: raised beds or drained fields in coastal plains and wetland areas, and irrigated terracing along streams and on hillsides. Although small systems remain extant, they are but relics of more sophisticated and prevalent labor-intensive agricultural landscapes that existed before European contact and colonization (Kuhlken 1994a). In Fiji, evidence for both forms of intensive taro gardening is widespread. Raised fields, known as vuci, solove, or vuevue, are still common on a small scale in many rural areas. On a much broader scale, abandoned vestiges of raised fields for the production of giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis) may be traced across the wide expanse of the Rewa River Delta, where Parry (1979:49) estimated their areal extent at 5200 ha. Likewise, irrigated terrace systems were once a feature of many village subsistence strategies in the highlands, especially within upper reaches of the Sigatoka River and Ba River watersheds on Viti Levu, and in parts of Vanua Levu, Taveuni, and several other islands (Sahlins 1962; Ward 1965; Parry 1987; Hashimoto 1990; Kuhlken 1994a). Limited systems of irrigated taro terraces remain operative on Gau (Watling 1984) and on Kadavu (Kuhlken 1993, 1994a). Although most Fijian terrace systems have been abandoned, their lasting imprint lends a memorable presence to the landscape, and serves as a focal point for investigations into past cultural-ecological relationships and local knowledge about the environment. Unlike terracing in other regions, which may have been built to retard soil erosion or simply to provide a level planting area, the irrigated taro terraces of Oceania were designed to carefully control the flow of water (Rivers 1926; Spencer and Hale 1961). Indeed, taro requires such irrigation in the drier rainshadow areas to ensure reliable yields. The wet, pondfield environment thus created provides the optimum medium for the growth of taro. Water must never be allowed to stagnate but must always flow slowly through the gardens, typically at a depth of between 10 and 15 cm. This continuous run of water regulates the temperature of the garden, cooling the taro stalks and helping to prevent corm rot. The rich, saturated soil layer is also constantly nourished by nutrients delivered in the flowing water. …" @default.
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• W70115279 date "1999-03-22" @default.
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• W70115279 title "Agricultural Terracing at Nakauvadra, Viti Levu: A Late Prehistoric Irrigated Agrosystem in Fiji" @default.
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