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• W8177418 abstract "This study examined what basic counting competencies, difficulties, skill progressions, and variation could be expected in school children classified as mentally handicapped. A total of 13 elementary and 23 intermediate children classified as moderately mentally handicapped and 37 elementary and 27 intermediate children classified as mildly mentally handicapped were individually administered structured interviews. Quantitative and qualitative analyses indicated deficiencies in basic counting competencies and systematic oraland object-counting errors. Moreover, object-counting competence preceded automatic pattern recognition. Finally, there were striking individual differences in ability, even within homogeneous groups of children. Basic counting knowledge, which is acquired by most typical children before formal schooling, cannot be taken for granted in mentally handicapped children of school age. Error analyses provide clues to oral and object-counting difficulties and direction for remedial efforts. Accurate and ample object-counting ex perience is essential for the development of more advanced skills, such as automatic pattern recognition. Instructional planning should be based on diagnoses of specific strengths and weaknesses, not generic labels. Even before formal schooling begins, children typically acquire impressive counting and number knowledge (e.g., Fuson & Hall, 1983; Gelman and Gallistel, 1978; Resnick, 1983). By the time they are 5 years old, most children can orally count up to 29 (Fuson, Richards, & Briars, 1982; Ginsburg & Baroody, 1983). At least with small sets (1 to 5 items), children entering kindergarten have also acquired ef ficient object-counting skills: enumeration, which involves one-to-one (1-1) counting (as signing one and only one number to each item of a set) (Bjonerud, 1960; Gelman & Gallistel, 1978; Williams, 1965), and production, which entails counting out a specified number of items (Wang, Resnick, & Boozer, 1971; Wil liams, 1965). Even young children readily ap preciate the cardinality rule (the last number in the enumeration process has a special status in that it summarizes the count and indicates how many objects are in the set) (e.g., Schaef fer, Eggleston, & Scott, 1974)—regardless of set size (Fuson, Pergament, Lyons, & Hall, 1 I wish to thank the administrators, teachers, and children of BOCES I and BOCES II (Monroe County, NY), whose cooperation made this study possible. This research was supported by NICHD (NIH) Grants HD16757-01 and HD16757-02. 2 An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, April 1984. 1985). By the time they enter kindergarten, children typically have discovered the order irrelevance principle (the order in which ele ments of a set are enumerated does not affect the cardinal designation of a set) (Gelman & Gallistel, 1978; Gelman & Meek, 1986). Moreover, without counting, most can auto matically recognize number patterns (subi tize) up to at least sets of four (Bjonerud, 1960; Gelman, 1977). At least for small sets, many preschoolers can automatically repre sent numbers (make cardinal models) with their fingers (Siegler & Robinson, 1982) and establish the equivalence of two sets by count ing (Gelman & Gallistel, 1978). Recent research (e.g., Baroody & Snyder, 1983; Gelman, 1982; Spradlin, Cotter, Stev ens, & Friedman, 1974) indicates that children classified as mentally handicapped are capable of rule-governed as well as rote counting (i.e., oral counting beyond the first 12 to 20 rotely learned terms), enumerating sets of objects, applying the cardinality rule, and abstracting the order-irrelevance principle. This research attempted to extend previous efforts by eval uating children classified as moderately and mildly mentally handicapped at the elemen tary (6 to 10 years of age) and intermediate (11 to 14 years) levels, examining a wide range of counting knowledge, and qualitatively an alyzing the subjects' responses." @default.
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• W8177418 date "1986-01-01" @default.
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• W8177418 title "Counting Ability of Moderately and Mildly Handicapped Children." @default.
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