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- W878433888 abstract "Sociality is ultimately beneficial for individuals. Social relationships amongst individuals are viewed as long-term investments, influencing individual fitness. Analyses of the costs (competition) and benefits (cooperation) of sociality at this level thus shed light onto individuals’ behavioural strategies, which are extremely diverse. To explain the existing social diversity in animal social structures, theoretical models emphasise ecological, genetic, developmental, and social factors as well as the phylogenetic history of species. In most gregarious mammals, females - being the philopatric sex - often form strong social bonds. Important structural factors of social bonds are dominance and kinship, and this has important implications for cooperation in general. However, it is as yet unclear what drives the variation in strength and quality of bonds, especially in relation to the type of societies individuals live in, for example despotic or egalitarian. Although all macaque species (genus Macaca) share the same social organisation (i.e. multi-male multi-female groups, with female philopatry), variation in social behaviour amongst the different macaque species is striking. These differences have been explained along different lines, from ecology to phylogeny, leading to the classification of their social structures in different categories. A major issue in the study of macaque societies however is a strong bias towards studying some species in detriment of others. This unbalance truly undermines our understanding of the social diversity therein. The overall aim of my thesis is to foster our knowledge and understanding of the diversity in macaque societies by studying one of the less-known species, the crested macaque, M. nigra, for the first time under natural conditions. The first study of my thesis aims at assessing the degree of social tolerance between females. I then examine the structure and function of social bonds between females by investigating post-conflict interactions (second study), and hierarchical and nepotistic influences on social behaviour (third study). Ultimately, this thesis aims at reflecting on the interplay between different factors in a comparative perspective and providing a tentative general framework for the evolution of diverse animal societies. In the first study, I quantify a comprehensive set of behavioural parameters the expression thereof reflects the social style of the species. I confirm that wild female crested macaques express a tolerant social style, with low intensity, frequently bidirectional, and reconciled conflicts. Dominance asymmetry is moderate, and associated with a bidirectional affiliative bared-teeth display. Females greatly tolerate one another in close proximity. The observed patterns match the profile of other tolerant macaques and are outside the range of patterns of more despotic species. In the second study, I investigate determinants and function of post-conflict interactions. I analyse the relationship between the occurrence of aggression and behavioural indicators of anxiety, and between the characteristics of conflicts (e.g. intensity, decidedness, or context), the characteristics of dyads involved in conflicts (e.g. strength of the social bond, or frequency of support in the dyad) and the occurrence of three post-conflict interactions in order to study their functions. I find little evidence that aggression affects females’ behavioural indicators of anxiety. Consequently, post-conflict interactions do not seem to serve a stress-reduction function. There is also little evidence that females use post-conflict interactions to “repair” their relationships. Patterns of initiation and directionality of post-conflict interactions rather support the hypotheses that reconciliation constitutes a signal of benign intent and that aggression towards third-parties are used to reassert females’ social status. These patterns represent meaningful contrasts compared with findings in other macaques in particular and in other animal species in general, and are related to the females’ tolerant social style. The final study aims at determining the hierarchical and nepotistic influence on social relationships. For this purpose, I investigate links between dominance, kinship, age, social bonds, coalitionary support, and tolerance (feeding in proximity and reconciliation). First, I found that higher-ranking females are not more attractive social partners than lower-ranking ones. Second, kinship does not predict differences in dominance rank. Furthermore, I found that social bonds are strongest between females both kin and close in rank, and similar in age. In contrast, coalitionary support occurs more often amongst females close in rank or across age classes, but not amongst kin or strong affiliates. In addition, tolerance is not influenced by any of the variables tested. The differential effects of the same factors on social bonds, coalitionary support, and tolerance highlight the complexity of social life in tolerant societies, where females form large and diverse affinitive networks. Through the combination of behavioural and genetic data, my thesis constitutes the first exhaustive study on the social behaviour of females of one of the less-known macaque species under natural conditions, and brings a necessary empirical basis to theoretical frameworks on the evolution of social diversity. The first study supports the idea that social styles are clusters of social behaviour around a certain mode, consistent within but different between species or group of species. I further demonstrate the limited influence of kinship and dominance on social bonds as well as the little importance that strong social bonds have for coalition or social tolerance. These findings raise the question about the adaptive value of the strength of bonds in comparison to their diversity and indicate that these different behavioural strategies can be meaningful in an evolutionary context. The present theories of social evolution are not entirely satisfactory: major parts of the variation observed in social behaviour remain unexplained. I propose that macaque social styles could be viewed as different coping strategies, or behavioural syndromes, evolved to maximise benefits of sociality. Ultimately, the behavioural syndrome framework not only provides a full account of different behavioural strategies under different contexts and of different individuals from both sexes, but also allows for the examination of proximate mechanisms, ultimate functions and developmental pathways altogether. The patterns uncovered in this study still remain to be further explained in relation to social (e.g., male influence) and environmental (e.g, competitive regimes) factors. Nevertheless, the picture drawn from crested macaques in this thesis differs substantially from the typical cercopithecine primate model. It also shows the importance of a model of social evolution taking into account all components (the environment, the organism and the social system) to explain fully the diversity of animal societies." @default.
- W878433888 created "2016-06-24" @default.
- W878433888 creator A5056888142 @default.
- W878433888 date "2022-02-20" @default.
- W878433888 modified "2023-10-01" @default.
- W878433888 title "Social tolerance: novel insights from wild female crested macaques, Macaca nigra" @default.
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